Duval's artistic anatomy : completely revised with additional original illustrations

HAROT D B. LEE LIBRARY

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PROVO,UTAH

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DuvAL's Artistic

Anatomy, completely Re-
vised with additional Original Illus-
trations. Edited and Amplified by
A. MELVILLE PATERSON, M.D.

DERBY PROFESSOR OF ANATOMY IN THE UNIVERSITY OF LIVERPOOL

Lm.

FUNK & WAGNALLS COMPANY
New York and London

BR1GHA.M W. NG L'?'',^^"^
PRO V O.UTAH .

I^imii^i III

PREFACE TO THE REVISED
EDITION

Few words of preface are needed here. The preface
of the original edition still holds good, and sufficiently
defines the aims and scope of the book. The first
object aimed at is to facilitate the study of artistic
anatomy by the demonstration of the meaning of
the appearances presented by the various parts of
the body. Incidentally it is hoped that through
close study the powers of observation will be
quickened. By a simple narration of the structure
of the body and its mechanism, particularly in relation
to surface forms, it is hoped that the student of
art may correctly and intelligently appreciate the
why and wherefore of the parts which he is called
upon to paint or model.

One would reiterate and emphasise the necessity
of two additional aids to this end. In his studies the
student should have and use the opportunity of seeing
and handling the separate bones and also an articu-
lated skeleton ; and where possible, he should have
access to a fully equipped anatomical museum. He
should further take advantage of all means of
studying on the living model — on himself, on other

VI

Preface.

models — and in casts, the movements, attitudes, and
gestures of the body, and the resulting surface forms.
By these two studies it becomes possible to cor-
relate properly the superficial appearances with
the deeper structures, such as bones, joints, and
muscles, which are mainly responsible for the
characteristic features presented in the living state.

I have to express my indebtedness to my friend
Dr. Thurstan Holland for the radiograph (Fig. 25,
p. 80) specially prepared by him for this work ; and
to the publisher of Cunningham's Text Book of
Anatomy for permission to use the figure (p. 315)
of the muscles of expression. A. M. P.

Liver pool J Jidyy 1905.

AUTHOR'S PREFACE

This little work is an epitome of a course of lec-
tures which for about ten years I had the honour
of delivering at the £cole des Beaux-Arts. If during
that time I have arrived at a right understanding
of the teachings of anatomy, I owe it to the great
interest taken in the subject by my listeners of all
ages ; and my first duty is to thank them for their
free interchange of ideas with me, thus enabling me
to understand their requirements and the mode of
satisfying them. But if the mode of exposition I
have adopted is to be rendered clear to a con-
stantly renewed audience, I must, in publishing this
work, first explain to the reader how the lectures
are to be used, and the principles which guided me
in their production.

This summary of anatomy is intended for those
artists who, having commenced their special studies,
have drawn the human form either from the antique
or from the living model — who, in a word, have
already what may be termed a general idea of
forms, attitudes, and movements. It is intended to
furnish them with a scientific notion of those forms,

viii Author's Preface.

attitudes, and movements. Thus it is far less a de-
scription of the forms of a particular region than
the anatomical explanation of those forms, and of
their modifications in a state of repose or move-
ment, that we have in view. That is why, instead
of proceeding from the surface to the deeper organs
and to the skeleton, we take the latter as the start-
ing-point of our studies. In this way alone can we
determine the laws which govern the movements of
the adjacent segments of the limbs upon each
other, and the movements of the limbs with re-
gard to the trunk, as also the reciprocal action of
these segments towards each other and in relation
to the whole body.

When to these fundamental notions is added a
knowledge of the muscular masses which move these
bones, the artist will at once be enabled to analyse
through the skin, as through a transparent veil, the
action of the parts which produce the various forms
with their infinite variety of character and move-
ment.

This method of teaching, which may be said to
proceed by synthesis, differs from that followed by
the generality of works on this subject — books which
treat by analysis. We make special' allusion to the
treatise of Gerdy,"^ which is about the most careful
work on plastic anatomy yet pubhshed, but which

* p. N. Gerdy : " Anatomy of the Forms of the Human Body for
Painting, Sculpture, and Surgery." Paris, 1829.

Author's Preface. ix

errs in a somewhat too lengthy description of ex-
ternal form, whilst sufficient space is not devoted
to explaining the anatomical reasons of those forms.
On the other hand, the remaining anatomical works
in the hands of the students in our art schools
generally comprise a volume of text and an illus-
trated atlas.^ Under these conditions, may I be
allowed to remark, somewhat severely, it may be,
that our young artists study the atlas by copying
and re-copying the plates, but do not read the text ?
Thus it will be understood why, ni this work, a
different method has been pursued ; and the fact of
the plates being intermixed with the text, and in
such a way that they cannot well be understood
without the aid of the accompanying pages, will in
all probability result in the student thoroughly and
carefully perusing the text.

Passing on to the manner of using the present
work, we must acknowledge that reading anatomical
details is at first dry ; it will always be so, unless
proceeded with in a simple and systematic manner.
In the oral courses, the lecturer, handling the
objects, and aided by his improvised drawings on
the blackboard, can make the most complex parts
interesting ; and by adroit repetitions and varied
illustrations, fix the attention and render the subject

* It is not always thus abroad. Thus in Germany there is the work
of E. Harless (" Lehrbuch der Plastischen Anatomic fiir Akademische
Anstalten." Stuttgart, 1876 : 2nd edit.).

X Author's Preface.

comprehensible, whereas it is quite different in a
written description. In this case it is the reader
who must animate the text for himself by examin-
ing and manipulating the parts needful for the
elucidation of the descriptions. For this purpose a
skeleton and a good plaster cast will suffice. On
the cast, with the aid of the plates which accom-
pany the text, it will be easy to follow the course
of the muscles ; and in this way alone will the
study of them become profitable, the student being
enabled to examine the model on different sides.
By handling the bones, by placing the articulating
surfaces in contact, the dry descriptions of the
mechanism of the joints will take a tangible form,
and will henceforth remain impressed on the
memory. For example, notwithstanding our diagrams
of the movements of pronation and supination, it is
only by handling the bones of the fore-arm that
the student will be enabled to fully appreciate the
marvellous mechanism by which the rotation of the
radius round the ulna is effected, allowing the hand
to present alternately its palmar and dorsal surface ;
and the same is the case in regard to the skeleton
of the foot and head, and the movements of the
lower jaw, &c.

The artist will find in this book some pages
devoted to the facial angle, to the forms of the
head, br achy cephalic and dolicocephalic heads, and

Author's Preface. xi

to some other questions of anthropology, and wiU
doubtless thank us for having considered here ideau
which are daily becoming familiar to the general
public.

Our only regret concerning these anthropological
studies is that the limits of this volume did not
permit us to go deeper into the teachings of the
anthropological laboratory, the direction of which
was confided to me after the loss of our illustrious
master, Broca.

I take this opportunity of expressing my grati-
tude to my excellent master, Professor Sappey,
who allowed me to borrow from his magnificent
treatise on anatomy the figures on osteology and
myology which constitute the chief merit of this
work ; and to my friend and colleague, E. Cuyer,
whose skilful pencil reproduced the figures from the
photographic atlas of Duchenne, as well as the two
illustrations of the Gladiator, and the sundry dia-
grammatic drawings which complete the theoretical
explanations of the text.

M. DUVAL.

CONTENTS

CHAPTER p^GB

I. Introduction to the Revised Edition . . i
II. Introduction. — Plastic Anatomy : Irs History,
Importance, and Objects — Order of thesk
Studies — Division of Subject .... 7

.^first ^art.— THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS,
PROPORTIONS.

III. Osteology and Arthrology in General —

Nomenclature — Vertebral Column. . . 19

IV. Skeleton of the Trunk (Thorax) — Sternum —

Ribs — Thorax as a Whole 41

V. Skeleton of Shoulder — Clavicle — Scapula-
Head of Humerus — Shoulder Joint . . 55

VI. Humerus and Elbow Joint 67

VH. Skeleton of Fore-Arm — Radius and Ulna —

Movements of Pronation and Supination . 77
VIII. Skeleton of the Hand — Wrist (Carpus) — Hand
and Fingers (Metacarpal Bones and
Phalanges) — Proportions of the Upper Limb
— Egyptian Canon — Brachial Index . . 87
IX. Skeleton of the Hips — Pelvis (Iliac Bones and

Sacrum) — The Pelvis according to Sex . . 103
X. The Femur and the Articulations of the Hips

— Proportions of the Hips and Shoulders . 116
XL The Femur and the Articulation of the Knee
Joint; the Shape of the Region of the

Knee 131

XII. Skeleton of the Leg: Tibia and Fibula, the
Malleoli or Ankles— General View of the
Skeleton of the Foot ; Tibio-Tarsal Articu-
lation 146

XIII. Skeleton of the Foot; Tarsus; Metatarsus;
Toes and Fingers— Proportions of the Lower
Limb— The Foot as a Common Measure . . 155

xiv Contents.

CHAPTER PAGE

XIV. Skeleton of the Head: Skull (Occipital, Pari-
etal, Frontal, Temporal Bones); Shapes of the
Skull (Dolicocephalic and Brachycephalic

Heads) 164

XV. Skeleton of the Face : The Orbital Cavities ;

Lower Jaw; Teeth; Facial Angle of Camper 173

cSecontr <[!««.— MYOLOGY.

XVL Of the Muscles in General — Muscles of the
Trunk: Anterior Region (Pectoralis Major;
THE Oblique and Recti Muscles of the
Abdomen) 189

XVn. Muscles of the Back: Trapezius, Latissimus

Dorsi, and Teres Major Muscles . . . 205

XVHL Muscles of the Shoulder: Deltoid: Serratus
Magnus; The Hollow and Shape of the

Arm-pit 215

XIX. Muscles of the Arm: Biceps; Coraco-Bracht-
ALis : Brachialis Anticus ; Triceps; Shape of

THE Arm 224

XX. Muscles of the Fore-Arm and Hand : The
Anterior, External, and Posterior Super-
ficial Muscles 232

XXI. Muscles of the Fore-Arm and Hand (continued) :
The Deep Posterior Muscles of the Fore-Arm
(Anatomical Snuff-Box) ; Muscles of the
Hand 244

XXn. Muscles of the Pelvis; the Gluteal Muscles ;
Fascia Lata; Muscles of the Thigh; Sar-
TORius, Quadriceps, Adductors, &c. . . 252

XXHL Muscles of the Leg ; Tendo Achillis ; Muscles

of the Foot 268

XXIV. Muscles OF the Neck : Sterno-Cleido-Mastoid,

Infra-Hyoid, and Supra-Hyoid Muscles. . 281
XXV. Muscles of the Head ; Muscles of Mastication ;
Muscles of Expression : History (Leonardo
da Vinci ; Humbert de Supervili e ; Duchenne
OF Boulogne, and Darwin) . . . .291

XXVI. Muscles of Expression ; Possible and Impos-
sible Combinations of Certain Contractions
of the Muscles of the Face .... 310

DUVAL'S
ARTISTIC ANATOMY

Artistic Anatomy

CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTION TO THE REVISED EDITION.

In offering instruction in anatomy to artists, one
feels compelled at the outset to attempt an answer
to the question : Of what use is anatomy, scien-
tifically considered, in the training of the artist ?

The artist requires to know his technique, just
as an architect or an engineer needs to start with
a knowledge of his materials.

Looking backward, we see that science and art
have ever progressed side by side. The history of
Egypt, of Greece, of the Renaissance, shows glorious
traditions of art, along with a full developrnent
of learning and philosophy. The advancement of
science and of art has always occurred simul-
taneously, and there never has been a time when
they have been divorced from one another.

This is par excellence the age of technical edu-
cation. There is no questioning the importance
of science, or the aid the arts have received from
it. We see it in architecture, in the influence of
terra-cotta and steel frames ; and in art, in the
introduction of aniline colours.

Painting and sculpture are the earliest of the
arts, and have produced some of the most cherished

2 Artistic Anatomy.

monuments of history ; and originally the chief
object portrayed was the human form, in action or
repose.

Let us for a moment consider to what extent
art has been indebted to anatomy in the production
of the masterpieces of the past.

I. Egypt. — Egypt presents the first great School
of Art, as of letters and philosophy, and from
Egypt knowledge and culture flowed to Greece
and Italy.

The vestiges of Egyptian art extant to-day
comprise for the most part statues — some of them
portraits — coins, sculptui'e (in low relief), and fiat,
painted outlines. As a rule, the representations ot
the human form pretend to no exact representa-
tion of detail of form or expression, and for the
most part are executed in a formal and stereotyped
fashion.

The amount of anatomical knowledge demanded
by the art of Egypt could obviously be acquired by
direct observation of the nude or semi-nude figures
of the living. The history of Egypt, profoundly
interesting from all points of view, is of special
interest to the anatomist, and centres round the
mode of treatment of the dead.

Ascribed usually to a belief in the immortality of
the soul, the ceremonial treatment of the body
after death was elaborate, and essentially religious.
The body was regarded as sacred, and the process
of embalming was a religious rite, entrusted to a
band of the priesthood — Charhebs or Paraschistes —
and no greater detail of anatomical examination was
permitted than was deemed necessary for the proper

Introduction to the Revised Edition. 3

preservation of the body. This band of the priest-
hood was moreover shunned and outcast, and yet
with all these disadvantages some knowledge of
anatomical structure must have been obtained.

It was only later, when Greek influence became
felt, that a study of anatomy arose in the Medical
School of Alexandria. Egypt was the nursing
mother of medical teaching, and Alexandria was the
first great medical school. Erasistratus (B.C. 285)
was the first great anatomist, and he utiHsed con-
demned criminals for dissection. Herophilus, a
Jew, is said to have dissected 600 bodies.

2. Greece and Rome. — The historical im-
portance of Egyptian art and the Alexandrine
School of Anatomy lies in the influence which they
exerted upon the culture of Greece and Italy.

Science and art were introduced directly into
Greece and Italy from Egypt. Anatomical know-
ledge in Greece begins with Hippocrates (b.c. 400),
who studied in Egypt under Democritus of Abdara.
Galen, later (a.d. 131), the great Roman physician,
was a Greek by birth, and was taught his anatomy
by Heraclianus at Alexandria.

Art in those days had ideals. Its aims were the
perpetuation of the godlike, the heroic, the repre-
sentation of perfect beauty and manly strength.
Every reproduction was required to be, if possible,
more beautiful than the original — virtually, as Les-
sing says, a law against caricature. '^ By no people,"
says Winckelmann, ^^ was beauty so highly esteemed
as by the Greeks."

Moreover, the Greek artist was surrounded by
a crowd of witnesses, in the masterpieces of

4 Artistic Anatomy.

sculpture, and in the living active forms of per-
fect manhood and v^omanhood. In the games
there were ample opportunities for the study of
the nude ; and every evanescent, subtle movement
could be noticed of the hthe and supple frame of
the athlete.

Marked attention was given to physical cul-
ture ; clothing was light, movements free, so that
the environment was perfect for the purposes of
the sculptor or figure-painter. Prizes were given
for beauty, and the artists were the judges.

The work of the artistic anatomist of those days
was superficial in a double sense. Cremation was
the usual mode of burial, the anatomist dissected
apes, and be3^ond an occasional opportunity of
handling human bones, little exact anatomical
knowledge was available. But from the artist's
point of view all the anatomy they needed was
before their eyes. The best models procurable were
before them ; and an art that in some respects is
perfect owes nothing to the science of anatomy.

3. The Art of the Renaissance.— Egyptian
art shows knowledge of form ; Greco- Roman art,
knowledge of form and proportion ; the art of the
Renaissance reaches a higher platform, in its por-
trayal of movement and the expression of emotion.

Three factors combined to give the impetus to
art at the time of the revival of learning. In 13 15
Mondino di Luzzi made the first public demonstra-
tion of the anatomy of the human body. In 1400-
1420 the process of wood-engraving, and subse-
quently the art of printing, were invented. Linked
with these two facts, and with the general advance

Introduction to the Revised Edition. 5

of learning, science, and art, was the great religious
revival of that period. The religious sentiment
gave the keynote to the artistic pre-eminence of
the old masters. Their themes were great, and the
result was a grandeur and a power that no merely
decorative or realistic school can ever attain.

In the 15th and i6th centuries, artists and
anatomists are constantly found in association as
fellow-workers and as personal friends. The great
work of Andreas Vesalius on Anatomy was
illustrated in an exact and artistic manner by
Jan van Calcker, Titian's favourite pupil. Leonardo
da Vinci and Delia Torre ; Michael Angelo and
Colombo ; Benvenuto Cellini and Da Carpi ; and
other names might be cited to show the close re-
lations of the artists and anatomists of those days.

There is little doubt that the old masters seized
every opportunity of becoming acquainted with
anatomical structure. Vasari used to advise his
pupils to study '^the antique, the nude, and dis-
sections from nature." Michael Angelo was in the
habit of first sketching his figures in the nude
condition, and afterwards clothing them with the
necessary drapery. Leonardo da Vinci has left few
complete pictures ; but there are numerous sketches
in existence (notably at Milan) in which he has
drawn with precision, dissections — e.g., of the knee
joint, with bones, ligaments, and muscles in proper
position. Ruskin says of him : '^ We have in this
great master a proof of the manner in which genius
submits to labour in order to attain perfection."

4. Modern Art. — For many reasons modern
art is more dependent than ever upon anatomical

6 Ar TIS tic a NA TOM Y.

knowledge. Not to dwell upon the ennobling power
of religious feeling — notably absent from modern art
—the artist of the present day suffers from the
plutocratic conditions of modern life, the inartistic
fashions of modern dress, and the difficulty of
obtaining accurate and well-formed human models ;
and is compelled to depend more and more upon a
scientific knowledge of anatomy.

Among the old masters there is often an excessive
exhibition of anatomical structure, and this is liable
to occur even more in some of the w^ork of modern
artists. A little knowledge is a dangerous thing ;
and it is of supreme importance that the ana-
tomical knowledge used by the painter or sculptor
should be properly applied, so that form, propor-
tion, contour, and expression may all have equal
value.

It is too common, unfortunately, for present-day
models to be disproportionate in form and deficient
in muscular development, and the mistakes of nature
are too often reproduced, in the form of defects or
exaggerations, in modern sculpture and pictures.
The student should seize every opportunity of
studying the w^ell-developed living nude form in
action in order to obtain an adequate idea of the
pattern which he desires to copy.

CHAPTER 11.

INTRODUCTION.

Anatomy in general ; the anatomy of the external forms of man ;
physiology of the same. — Origin of the knowledge of the Greek artists
of the anatomy of external forms ; the influence of gymnastics
upon Greek art. — The Renaissance and anatomical study : Mondino di
Luzzi (1316). — The anatomical studies of Leonardo da Vinci, Michael
Angelo, and Raphael. — Titian and Andreas Vesalius. — The anatomical
course of the School of Painting (1648). — What the artist requires in
the study of anatomy : proportions, forms (or contours), attitudes,
movements. — The order of these studies ; divisions of the subject.

Anatomy, as the derivation of the word indicates
(from ava, across, and to fir), section), is the study
of the parts composing the body — muscles, bones,
tendons, hgaments, various viscera, &c. — parts which
we separate one from the other by dissection, in
order to examine their shapes and their relations
and connections.

This study may be accomplished in various
ways: (i) from a philosophical and comparative
point of view, by seeking the analogies and differ-
ences that the organs present in animals of different
species — which is called Comparative Anatomy ; (2)
from a practical point of view, by seeking out the
arrangement of organs, the knowledge of which is
indispensable to the physician and surgeon — thi^ is
called Surgical or Topographical Anatomy ; (3) by
examining the nature and arrangement of the
organs which determine the external forms of the
body — this is Plastic Anatomy y called also the

8 Aie T/S TIC A NA TOM Y,

Ajiatomy of External For 7ns, the Anatomy of
Artists, It is the anatomy of external forms that
we shall study here ; but the artist ought to know
not only the form of the body in repose, or in the
dead subject, but also the principal changes of form
in the body when in a state of activity, of move-
ment, and of function, and should understand the
causes which determine these changes. Plastic
anatomy ought to be supplemented by a certain
amount of knowledge of the functions of the organs,
e.g., muscles and articulations ; so that under the
title of anatomy of the external forms of man we
shall study at the same time the anatomy and the
physiology of the organs which determine these
forms. We should be contending for what has
been long since conceded, were we to endeavour
to show to what an extent the studies of anatomy
and physiology are indispensable to the artist, who
seeks to represent the human form under many and
various types of action. Nevertheless, it may be
useful to explain how the chefs-d'ceiivre of ancient
art have been produced with admirable anatomical
exactness by men who certainly had not gone
through any anatomical studies, and to show what
special conditions aided them to acquire, by con-
stant practice, the knowledge that we are obliged
to seek day by day in the study of anatomy.

The Greek sculptors have reproduced the human
form with marvellous anatomical exactness ; in fact,
the works of Phidias (the Theseus and the Ilissus),
those of Myron (the Discobolus), those of Lysippus
and ol' Praxiteles (the Sleeping Fawn), those of
Agasias (the Fighting Gladiator), and other master-

Introduction. 9

pieces given as models in all the schools of art,
are such that it is impossible to find fault with
them, or to discover in them the least inexactitude,
either from an anatomical or a physiological poinc
of view ; * in fact, not only are the muscles, foi
example, prominent exactly in their places, but^
more than that, these prominences are differently
accentuated in corresponding muscles on the dif-
ferent sides, according to the nature of the move-
ment ; one side will present the muscles swelled
up in a state of contraction, or the muscles ma}'
be in repose — that is, relaxed and relatively flattened.
At the time when these works of art were pro-
duced, the study of anatomy, or even the dissection
of the human body, had not yet been attempted ;
the respect in which the dead body was held was
such that the physicians themselves, who should
have been able to justify their motives for this
study, had never as yet dissected a human body.
In order to supply this want of direct knowledge
Hippocrates had dissected animals, and had arrived
at certain conclusions by the analogy that exists
between the organs of quadrupeds and those in
man. Galen himself dissected monkeys onl}^, seek-
ing to confine his examination to animals whose
anatomical construction might be considered as
most closely resembling that of man. Galen never
possessed a human skeleton, for in a passage in his
anatomical works he states the pleasure that he

* We must look for other reasons than ignorance or indifference to
explain the fixed scapulas in pre-Phidian sculpture, or the exaggerated
forms given to the extensor brevis of the foot and other muscles. Thi§
qualification is necessary to this general statement. — Ed.

I o Art IS tic A na tom y.

found in studying at last some human bones that
had been deposited in a marshy place by a river
which had overflowed its banks. We seem, then,
to ha\-e a singular contradiction between these two
facts, as we know on the one hand that the Greek
artists have shown in their works a most rigorous
anatomical exactitude, whilst on the other hand
neither they nor their contemporary physicians and
surgeons had made a study of the anatomy of man
by the practice of dissection.

But this contradiction disappears altogether when
we examine the conditions which permitted those
artists to have constantly before their eyes the nude
human body, hving and in motion, and so set them
to work to analyse the forms, and thus to acquire,
by the observation of the mechanism of active
muscular changes, a knowledge almost as precise
as that which is now obtained by the accurate
study of anatomy and physiology. It is sufflcient,
in fact, to recall to mind the extreme care the
ancients gave to the development of strength, and
of physical beauty, by gymnastic exercises. In
Homer we see the heroes exercising themselves in
racing, in quoit-throwing, and in wrestling ; later
we come to the exercise of the athletes who trained
themselves to carry off the palm in the Olympic
games ; and it is evident, in spite of the ideas that
we hold now respecting wrestlers and acrobats, that
the profession of an athlete was considered a glorious
one, as being one which not only produced a con-
dition of physical beauty and high character, but
constituted in itself a true nobility. Thus the life
of the gymnast came to exercise a decisive influ-

INTRODUCTION. 1 1

ence on Greek art. The prize of the conqueror in
the Olympic games was a palm, a crown of leaves,
an artistic vase ; but the chief glory of all was that
the statue of the victor was sculptured by the most
celebrated artist of the time. Thus Phidias produced
the handsome form of Pantarces, and these athletic
statues form almost the only archives of the Olym-
piads, upon which Emeric David was able to re-
construct his Greek Chronology. From these works,
which became ideals of strength and beauty, the
artist had long been able to study his model, which
he saw naked every day, not only before his exer-
cises, whilst rubbing himself over with oil, but
during the race, or the leaping match, which showed
the muscles of the inferior extremities, or during
the throwing of the quoit, which made the con-
tractions of the muscular masses of the arm and
the shoulder prominent ; and during the wrestling
matches, which from the infinite varieties of effort,
successively brought all the muscular powers into
play. Was it then surprising that the images of
the gods, destitute of movement and of life, which
had so long satisfied the religious sentiment of the
people, were succeeded by artistic representations of
man in action in statues such as could embody the
idea of strength and beauty, studies of the living
statues of the gymnasium ? Further, we shall see
the decline of art proceed side by side with the
abandonment of the exercises of the gymnasium.
Much later, in the Middle Ages, art awoke and
embodied ideas in figures without strength and life
indeed, but which nevertheless express in a mar-
vellous manner the mysterious aspirations of the

12 Artistic Anatomy.

period ; but these have not anything in common
with the reahstic representation of the human form,
well developed and active, as seen in Greek art.
At the time of the Renaissance, artists not having
any longer a living source of study in athletic
sports, recognised the necessity of seeking for more
precise knowledge in the aiiatojnical study of the
human body, in addition to the inspiration drawn
from the study of the antique, and thus we see
that the revival of the plastic arts occurred simul-
taneously with the introduction of the practice of
dissection. This was not brought about without
some difficulty.

In the year 1230, Frederic II., Emperor of
Germany, and King of the Two Sicilies, passed a
law prohibiting the practice of medicine without
the practitioners having first studied the anatomy of
the human body. In spite of two papal excom-
munications hurled against the author of this edict,
dissections were henceforth regularly pursued in
Italy; and one century later — in the year 13 16 —
Mondino di Luzzi was able to write the first treatise
on human anatomy, containing descriptions made
from studies of the dead body. This treatise was
printed in 1478. Artists rivalled physicians in the
ardour with which they pursued their anatomical
studies ; and it may be said that all the painters
and sculptors in the fifteenth century gave most
careful attention to dissection, or at least studied
demonstrations made upon the dead body, for all
have left, amongst their drawings, studies that leave
no doubt on this head. Among the great masters
it may be noted that Leonardo da Vinci (1452—

Introd uction.

13

151 9) left thirteen portfolios of various drawings
and studies, among which are numerous anatomical

Fig. I.

Reproduction of a drawing of an anatomical study by Leonardo da Vinci.
(Choulant's work, page 8.) This design represents the minute dissection of
the muscles of the lateral region of the neck and trunk.

studies of remarkable fidelity. The greater number
of these were taken from Milan by the French in
1796, and afterwards they v^^ere in part restored to
Italy ; some of them, however, went to enrich the
British Museum in London, and were Dublished by

14 Art IS tic A na tomy.

Chamberlain.* In Fig. i is reproduced one of these
anatomical drawings. It shows with what care —
perhaps with over-scrupulous care— the illustrious
master endeavoured to separate by dissection the
various fasciculi of pectoral muscle, deltoid, and
sterno-cleido-mastoid. It may be noted also that
in his Treatise on Paintings Leonardo da Vinci
devotes numerous chapters to the description of the
muscles of the body, the joints of the limbs and
of the "cords and small tendons which meet
together when the muscles contract to produce
its action," &c. ; and finally, in this same Treatise
on Painting, he makes allusion at different times
to a Treatise on Anatomy ^ which he intended to
publish, and for which he had gathered together
numerous notes. These are fortunately preserved in
the Royal Library at Windsor.

Michael Angelo also (1475 — 1564) made at
Florence many laborious studies of dissection, and
left among his drawings beautiful illustrations of
anatomy, of which several have been published in
Choulant's work, and by Seroux d'Agincourtf Fin-
ally, we have numerous drawings by Raphael himself,
as proof of his anatomical researches, among which
we ought to mention, as particularly remarkable, a
study of the skeleton intended to give him the
exact indication of the direction of the limbs and
the position of the joints for a figure of the swoon-

♦ See Ludwig Choulant. Cesichtc nud Bihliographie des Anatom-
ischen Abbildnugcn. Leipzig: 1852. (A very curious work wlierein is
found much information respecting the connection of anatomy with the
plastic arts.)

t Seroux d'Agincourt. IJistory of Art by its Monuments. Paris-
181 r. Vol. i., p. 177.

Introduction, t 5

ing Virgin in his painting of the Entombment (Chou-
lant, p. 15). We cannot end this short enumeration
without quoting further the names of Titian and
Andreas Vesahus, in order to show into what inti-
mate relations artists and anatomists were brought
by their common studies. Titian, in fact, is considered
the real author of the admirable figures which illus-
trate the work — ^^De Humani Corporis Fabrica" —
of the immortal anatomist, Andreas Vesalius, justly
styled the restorer of anatomy. It is necessary,
however, to add that though some of the drawings
are by Titian, the greater number were executed by
his pupil, Jan van Calcker, as is pointed out in the
preface to the edition of the work published at
Basle in 1543.

The renaissance of the plastic arts and that ot
anatomy were therefore simultaneous, and closely
bound up one with the other ; ever since that time
it has been generally recognised that it is necessary
to get by anatomical study that knowledge of form
which the Greeks found themselves able to embody
in consequence of the opportunities they had of
studying the human figure in the incessant exer-
cises of the gymnasium. Again, in 1648, when
Louis XIV. founded at Paris the Acadhnie de
Peinture et de Sculpture , which later on took the
title of the Ecole des Beaux- Arts, two sections of
study were instituted side by side with the studios
properly so called, for imparting to the pupils in-
struction considered as fundamental, and indispens-
able to the practice of art. These were the sec-
tions of perspective and anatomy.

It is not our place to plead, otherwise than by

1 6 Artistic Ana tom y.

the preceding historical considerations; the cause of
anatomy in its relation to painting and sculpture ;
but we ought at least to examine what method is
likely to prove the most useful for its study. If
each anatomical detail does not correspond to an
artistic need we are liable in following any treatise
written with other than an artistic aim to be en-
tangled in superfluous names and useless descrip-
tions ; while at the same time we might neglect
details which are to the artist of great importance,
although considered of secondary value by authors
who have written especially for students in
Qiedicine.

We ought, then, to ask ourselves, in the first
place, what are the ideas that the artist should
seek for in his study of anatomy ? To this question
all will reply that the ideas of proportion, of form,
of attitudes and movements are those in which
anatomy is relied upon to furnish precise rules ;
and as the expression of the emotions, either in
painting or sculpture, cannot be reproduced except
by various changes in the general attitude of the
body, and in the special mechanism of the physi-
ognomy moved by the muscles, we must conclude
that our study should deal not only with propor-
tions, form, attitudes and movements, but also with
the expression of the emotions and passions. This,
then, is the object to be attained. Suppose we try
to accomplish it by examining in a first series of
studies all that belongs to proportions; afterwards,
in a second series, all that has relation to form ; in
a third, attitudes, &c. Such an order of proceed-
ing, logical though it be, will have the disadvantage

Introduction, 17

of causing numerous repetitions, and the more
serious inconvenience of artificially separating parts
which in the structure of the body are intimately
connected. Thus, form is determined sometimes by
osseous prominences, sometimes by the soft parts,
which may be muscular or tendinous. Attitudes
are determined by the muscles ; but these are
subject to laws which result from the position and
action of the joints ; so with movements in the
expression of which it is necessary to consider, at
the same time, what the conformation of the
osseous levers (the direction of the bones and their
articulation) allows, as well as that which the
muscles accomplish, also the direction of the
muscles and the differences of shape produced by
their swelling and tension in action, as well as
when the antagonistic muscles are relaxed. Propoi\
tions themselves cannot be defined without an
exact knowledge of the skeleton, for it is the
bones alone which furnish us with the landmarks
from which to take measurements. A knowledge
of the bones and of their articular mechanism is
indispensable to us, that we may guard ourselves
against being deceived in certain apparent changes
of length in the limbs when certain movements
take place.

We see, then, that all the ideas previously enu-
merated as to/proportion, form, attitude, movement,
depend on the study of the skeleton and muscles)
It will thus be easiest and most advantageous to
proceed in the following manner : — We will first of
all study the skeleton, which will teach us the
direction of the axis of each part of the limbs, the
c

1 8 Artis tic a na tomy.

relative lengths and proportions of these portions,
and the osseous parts which remain uncovered by the
muscles, and show beneath the skin the shape and
the mechanism of the articulations in their relation
to movements and attitudes. We shall then study
the muscles, and endeavour to know their shapes, at
the same time that, we complete the knowledge we
shall have acquired of attitudes and movements.
In the third place, we will attempt the analysis
of the expression of the passions and emotions ;
and the study of the muscles of the face, of which
the mechanism in the movements of the physiog-
nomy is so special that it would be inconvenient
to attempt to treat it with that of the muscles of
the trunk and limbs.

19

jTirsJt part.

THE SKELETON, ARTICULATIONS, PROPORTIONS.

CHAPTER III.

OSTEOLOGY AND ARTHROLOGY IN GENERAL —
NOMENCLATURE — VERTEBRAL COLUMN.

Osteology and Arthrology. — Anatomical nomenclature : median line ;
lateral parts ; the meaning of terms. — Of the bones in general : long
bones (shafts and extremities) ; flat bones (surfaces, borders) ; short
bones. — Prominences (processes, spines) ; cavities and depressions of
bone (fossae, grooves). — Bone and cartilage. — The axial skeleton : the
vertebral column. — The vertebrae (bodies, transverse processes, spinous
processes, &c.) — Cervical, Dorsal, Lumbar vertebrae. — Articulations of
the vertebrae. — Movements of the spine. — Movements of the head (atlas
and axis). — The curves of the vertebral column. — Relation of the verte-
bral column to the surface — Proportions of the parts of the spine.

It is not necessary to emphasise further the import-
ance of a study of the skeleton. By its means we
obtain a knowlecige of form and proportions ; by a
study of the several articulations we become ac-
quainted with the complex mechanism by which
the whole is knit together, and by which the
movements of the various parts of the body occur.
Further, the relations of the skeleton to the surface
forms of different parts of the body are of funda-
mental importance. The science of Osteology is
the study of bones (oariov, bone ; \6jo^, description) ;
Arthrology is the study of joints (apOpov, a joint) :

20

A R T/S TIC A NA TOMY.

Frontal bone

Orbital cavity

Olieek-bones (Malah) and Nasal bones

Upper Jaw bones

32 Teeth

Lower Jawbone (Manuible)

Neck (Ceevicai. Vertebrae)
Collarbone (Clavicle)
— Shoulder-joint (ball and socket)

Breast-bone (Sternum)
ShouMer-blade (Scapula)
12 Ribs on eacii side— 7 true. 5 false (2 floating)
T Ann-bone (Humerus)
Thoracic vertebKre

Lumbar vertebra*
Elbow (hinge joint)

Hip or haunchbone (Os Innominatum)

Radius (with the Ulna formina; the forearm)

Pelvis

Acetauuluni (cup or socket)

Ulna

Sacrum

Coccyx

Wrist (Carpus)

Palm (Metacarpus)

Fingers and thumb (PHALANUin)

Thigh bone (Femur)

Knee-cap (Patella)

Shin-bone (Tibia)
Brooch-bone (Fibula)

Heel (Os Calcis)

Ankle (Tarsus)
Instep (Metatarsus)
Toes (Phalanges)

Fig.

Front View of the Skeleton.

OSTEOLOGY AND ARrHROLOGY IN GENERAL. 21

(PaiitUil boii«
T^nponU bone
Occipital bone

7 Cervical (neck)

Frontal hone (forehead)

Scapula
(shoulder-blacle)

Spinal

column

^backbope),

33 vertebrae

./r ^"^i-i "(is Thoracic (Back) at^actied to ribs ■*•
Movable ^

5 Lumbar (LoiirsV

g J I become amalgamated

* Fixed [-^ Coccyx ' ^'^^ ^°"" ^ ^°"^'*

fS. Carpus (wrist)
„ J jo M'e.acarpus (palm)
27 bones

Foot,
26 bones

14 Phalanges (fingers and thumb)
(2 for thumb and 3 for each finger)

Os Calcis (heel)
[l Tarsus (ankle)

3 Metatarsus (instep)

14 Phalanges (toes)

(2 great toe, other toes 3 each)

Fig. 3.
Side View of the Skeleton.

22 Artistic Anatomy,

Myology is the study of muscles (/xf9; \o'^oi). The
bones are the levers of movement : the articulations
represent the fixed points or fulcra of these levers ;
while the powers which produce motion are repre-
sented by the muscles.

Before describing in detail the different parts of
the skeleton, it is necessary to consider the method
of nomenclature, so that by the employment of
proper terms the subsequent descriptions may be
more intelligible.

Nomenclature. — In the description of the
bones, as of other organs, we have to consider the
relation of the portion under consideration to the
rest of the body. The figure is always regarded as
occupying the erect position, with the face, the
palms of the hands, and the toes directed forward.
Thus each bone, as well as the other organs or
parts, will be found under one or other of two
different conditions : either it is 7nedian in position,
and a vertical plane passing through the longitudinal
axis of the body divides it into two similar seg-
ments ; or else it is lateral in position, and situated
outside this median plane. As a type of the first
class, we will take the sterimm, or breastbone (see
Fig. II, p. 42). This is a central single bone ; it has
no fellow, and is composed of two symmetrical por-
tions, one part on the right and one part on the
left. As a type of the second class, we will take
the hmiieriLS (Fig. x8, p. 60), which is a bone situated
at the side and one of a pair, inasmuch as there are
two, one on the right and one on the left of the
median plane. From these two examples it is easy
to understand that for the description of each single

Osteology and Arthrology in General. 23

and symmetrical bone it will be necessary to speak
of anterior parts or surfaces directed towards the
front of the body, of posterior parts (directed back-
wards), of lateral^ portions (right and left), and finally,
of parts superior and inferior, looking upwards and
downwards (in the case of the sternum a superior
and inferior extremity) : on the other hand, in the
description of a paired and non-symmetrical bone,
we shall also have to speak as heretofore of parts
superior and inferior, anterior and posterior ; but
instead of two similar symmetrical portions, one on
each side of an imaginary line, it has two dissimilar
halves, of which the one looking towards the median
plane — towards the axis of the body — is called the
internal part, and the other, looking to the outer
side (as away from the axis), is called the external
part. It is necessary, for brevity and accuracy, to
clearly comprehend the meaning of these terms in
descriptive anatomy (anterior and posterior, internal
and external, superior and inferior) which serve to
show the relation of the parts to the skeleton as a
whole.

After this first division of bones into single and
median, and into double and lateral, if we glance
at the skeleton (Figs. 2, 3), it seems at first sight
that the various bones present an infinite variety
of shape,, and defy classification or nomenclature ;
careful attention, however, will show us that they
may be all included in one of the following three
classes — viz., long bones, flat or broad bones, and
short bones.

The long bones, which usually act as the axes
of the limbs [e.g., the hufnerns, femurs tibiUj &c.).

24 Artistic Anatomy.

are composed of a central portion, cylindrical or
prismatic in shape, called the body, shaft, or dia-
physis {hLa(f)vw, to be between), and of two ex-

FiG. 4

The Complete Skeleton (in the attitude ot "The Fighting Gladiator" of

Agasias) .

tremities, or epiphyses (einc^va), to be at the end),
usually marked by protuberances and articular sur-
faces. The flat bones {e.g., the shoulder -bind e and
the hip hone) are formed of osseous plates, on
which are various surfaces^ borders^ and angles.

Osteology and Arthrology in General. 25

Finally, the small bones, which are found in the
vertebral column and in the extremities of the
limbs, the hand and foot [carpus and iarsits), present
a diversity of form in which cylindrical, cubical,
and wedge-like shapes can be made out.

Whether the bone be long, flat, or short, it
presents prominences and depressions. The pro-
jecting portions of bone are called by various names
— tuberosities, protuberances, processes, apophyses,
crests, spines, tubercles. To some of these names
is added an adjective, which shows, more or less
exactly, the form of the process or projection.
Thus we speak of a spinous process, mastoid process
{fiao-To^, a nipple ; eI8o9, form), styloid process, &c.
The depressions upon the bones are called by
various ndcoaQS— -fossa, groove, forajnen, sinus, canal,
notch, cavity, &c. To these also are added names
which indicate their shape, as the digital fossa,
from its resemblance to the imprint of a finger ;
the glenoid cavity {'yXrjVT], cavity), the cotyloid cavity
{'X^otvXt], a basin) ; but more frequently still, the
added adjective bears allusion to a connection of
the cavity with certain organs, as the bicipital
groove, that which contains the tendon of the
biceps, or the cani?ie fossa, in relation to the root
of the canine tooth.

Structure of Bojie, — Bone is characterised by
its density, toughness and elasticity. If a long
bone, such as the femur, is sawn in two length-
wise, its extremities are found to be composed of a
delicate network of cancellous, or spongy bone, in
the interstices of which marrow and blood are con-
tained during hfe ; the shaft of the bone is composed,

26 Artistic Anatomy,

for the most part, of a cylindrical tube of dense,
ivory-like compact bone, which encloses the hollow
medullary canal of the bone, also filled with marrow
during life. The dense bone of the shaft is continuous
with a thin sheet of hard bone, which covers over
the spongy bone of the extremities.

In the case of the flat and short bones, the
structure is like that of the extremities of the long
bones. The mass of the bone is composed of can-
cellous tissue, with a surrounding thinner envelope
of compact bone.

If a bone is burnt, it loses one-third in weight,
becomes brittle, and loses its organic constituents,
retaining its inorganic materials — chiefly calcium
phosphate and calcium carbonate. If it is subjected
to prolonged soaking in an acid such as hydrochloric
acid, its inorganic salts are removed, it becomes
soft and pliable, it loses two-thirds of its weight
and retains only its organic materials — connective
tissues. These in boiling produce glue.

In certain situations bone is found in conjunction
with a substance which differs from it in its
elasticity, its want of rigidity (it is soft enough to
be divided by the scalpel), and in its translucent
colour. This substance is known by the name of
cartilage. Thus the curved bones termed ribs are
prolonged at their anterior extremities by a portion
called the costal cartilage^ which presents the same
form as the ribs properly so called. The bones
forming the freely movable joints (like the shoulder,
hip and knee joints) are capped by thin layers of
hyaline articular cartilagCj which forms a pliant
elastic cushion in relation to the articulation.

Osteology and Arthrology in General. 27

Most of the bones, at the commencement of their
formation, are constructed solely of cartilage, which
is gradually transformed into bone as the animal
grows by the deposition in it of lime salts ; and
this transformation of primitive cartilage into bone
may be more or less complete according to the
species or age of the animal. With advancing age
the bones tend to become more and more calcified.
Thus we find that in the skeletons of old people
the costal and other cartilages may be more or
less ossified.

The Subdivisions of the Skeleton, — The human
skeleton is characterised by peculiarities due to the
assumption of the erect position, the high develop-
ment of the brain, and the possession of extra-
ordinary manual dexterity. All these factors leave
their impress on the bones of the skeleton, as may
be seen by comparing the human skeleton with
that of such a quadruped as the dog.

The skeleton is subdivided into axial and appen-
dicular parts. The axial skeleton includes the
vertebral column, ribs and sternum, and the bones
of the cranium and face. The appendicular skeleton
comprises the bones of the limbs. In the following
pages, for convenience of description, an account
will be given of the vertebral column, sternum, and
ribs first ; of the limbs second ; reserving to the
last the account of the skeleton of the cranium and
face.

The Vertebral Column. — The vertebral column
(Figs. 5, 8) is composed of a number of bones named
vertebrce, superimposed on one another, and partially
separated from one another by a series of inter-

28

A R TIS TIC A NA TOM Y.

v'}%-

vertebral discs. The column is subdivided into
groups of vertebras, by reason of its
connections with other parts of the
axial skeleton, or with the skeleton
of the limbs.

The head is poised on the upper
end of the column, and causes the
peculiarities, to be described later, in
the first two vertebrae {atlas and axis).
The attachment of the ribs to the sides
of the vertebral column causes the
separation of three regions : (i) cervi-
cal, belonging to the neck, and com-
prising seven vertebrae ; (2) thoracic
(or dorsal), belonging to the thorax,
or chest, and comprising twelve verte-
brae ; and (3) lumbar ^ belonging to the
loin, and comprising five vertebrae.
The attachment of the hip bones to
the sides of the succeeding vertebrae
leads to the fusion of the next five
vertebrae together, under the name
of the OS sacrum, which will be
described along with the hip bone
and pelvis. Finally, below the
sacrum are four small, rudimentary
vertebrae, known as the coccyx, form-
ing the attenuated remains of a caudal
Fig. 5. appendage.

The Vertebral Column (antero-lateral aspect).— i, the first cervical
vertebra (atlas) ;— 9, 9, its occipital articulating surfaces ;— 2, the second cervicai
vertebra, or axis;— 13, its body ;— 4, seventh cervical ;— 5, 5, transverse processes
of the ten first thoracic vertebrae ; — 8, 8, transverse processes of the lumbar
vertebrae ;— 10, 11, 12, articular processes ;— 19, 19, bodies of the lumbar ver-
tebrae ; — 20, the sacrum ;— 21. the coccyx.

12-

<*W^-

*^r»^x::»ij(«

1 VPTT'N

Osteology and Arthrologv in General. 29

There are thus, altogether, normally thirty-
three vertebrae : seven cervical, twelve thoracic,
five lumbar (constituting together twenty-four mov-
able vertebrae); five sacral, and four coccygeal
vertebrae (constituting nine fixed
vertebras, which help to form the
pelvic basin).

The vertebral column is in-
tended not only to form an axis
for the rest of the skeleton, but
also to serve as an attachment,
direct or indirect, for all the other
bony structures ; it also forms a
bony canal, within which the spinal
marrow is contained. It is for
this reason that each of the pieces
which compose it, called a verte-
bra, is a sort of bony ring (Fig. 6).
The anterior portion of the ring
is very thick, representing the
segment of a cylinder, and is
called the body of the vertebra
(2, Fig. 6) ; and the vertebral
column, considered as the median column of
support, is essentially constituted by the super-
position of these vertebral bodies upon one
another, separated by the intervertebral discs.
Behind each vertebral body is an arch, the neural
arch, which encloses the neural ring. The spinal
or neural canal is formed by the combination and
connection together of the neural rings. Each
neural arch is comparatively slender, but it gives
origin to certain projections or processes, three in

Fig 6.

Outline of a Verte
BRA (upper surface),-

0, vertebral foramen ; —

1, spinous process; — 2,
body of vertebra ; — 3, 3,
transverse process with
articulating facets (4, 4)
for the tuberosity of the
rib (see p. 30);— 5, 5.
superior articular pro-
cesses;—6, 6, the parts
which connect the body
with the base of the trans-
verse and articular pro-
cesses;— 7, 7, vertebral
laminae.

30 Artistic Anatomy.

number, on each side, of which one directed trans-
versely outwards is called the transverse process
(3, Fig. 6). In the thoracic region these give
partial attachment to the ribs. The other two —
directed more or less vertically, one above, the
other below — are called the articular processes,
superior and inferior. These serve for uniting
together the arches of adjoining vertebrae (5, 5,
Fig. 6). Finally, the posterior portion of the
neural arch is prolonged backwards as a pro-
tuberance, more or less pointed, called the spinous
process (i. Fig. 6).

Such are the most important parts which we
find in each vertebra, but they present particular
characters according to the region to which each
vertebra belongs. The description of the sacrum
and the coccyx, which are formed of vertebrae
welded together, and articulating with the hip
bones, will be given with that of the pelvis.

The more important features of the movable
vertebrae which contribute to give to the whole
column its general form are : (i) the size, parti-
cularly of the bodies, of the vertebrae ; and (2)
the characters of the transverse processes. The
bodies of the vertebrae are smallest in the upper
thoracic region, and increase in size upwards and
downwards from the fourth thoracic vertebra. The
bodies are largest and most prominent in the loin ;
in the neck the vertebrae are broad in the transverse
diameter, but their antero-posterior diameters are
less. The vertebral column is weakest in the upper
thoracic and upper lumbar regions, and most mobile
in the neck and thorax. Rotary power in the loin

Fig. 7.

The Movable VERXEBRiB.— A, atlas (upper surface) ; B C, axis; D E, cervical
vertebra ; F G, thoracic vertebra ; H I, lumbar vertebra.

32 Artistic Anatomy,

is practically prevented by the shape of the lumbar
articular processes, which interlock the vertebral
arches in this region.

The spirious processes of the vertebrae, which
project more or less obviously in the middle line
beneath the skin in different regions, in the cervical
region are short and bifid ; in the thoracic region
they are long, sloped downwards, and ^' bayonet-
shaped " ; in the lumbar region they are directed
straight backwards, and are ^' hatchet-shaped."

Besides these general characters in each region
there are certain vertebrae which demand special
mention owing to the peculiarities of their shape.
These are the first two and the last cervical.

The first cervical vertebra (Fig. 7, a), called the
Atlas, because as directly supporting the head, it has
been compared to the giant Atlas, supposed by the
ancients to support the heavens, is a bony ring with
only transverse processes, and on the upper and lower
aspects of its lateral portion, two pairs of articular
surfaces ; the superior articular surfaces are hollow
oval surfaces which articulate with the convex con-
dyles of the occipital bone ; and by the occipito-
atlantoid joints provide for flexion and extension
of the head on the spinal column." The inferior
articular surfaces are flat and directed downwards
to articulate with the axis and form the atlanto*
axial joint, which is responsible for the movement
from side to side of the head upon the trunk. The
axis, or second vertebra (Fig. 7, B c), is so called from
the presence on the upper surface of its body of a
tooth-like process, the odontoid process (680U9, tooth ;
aSos, form), which projects upwards in an osseo-

Osteology and Arthrology in General. 33

fibrous ring formed by a transverse ligament in the

anterior part of the ring of the atlas. Ligaments

extend from this process to

the occipital bone, and it

forms a pivot round which

the head and the atlas move

in the lateral movements of

the head upon the spinal

column.

In nodding the head the
movement occurs primarily at
the occipito-atlantoid joint ;
in shaking the head, the chief
movement is between the
atlas and axis. These func-
tions, of no moment in the
production of surface forms,
are of too great an import-
ance in respect of the articu-
lations of the head and trunk
to be omitted here.

The seventh cervical ver-
tebra, or vertebra prominens,
is so called because of the
extraordinary length of its
spinous process, which, ex-
cept in very stout people,
forms a projection easily
visible beneath the skin ;
and this projection is also fig. 8.

Vertebral Column (lateral view). — i to 7, bodies of cervical vertebrae; —
8 to 19, bodies of thoracic vertebrae ;— 20 to 24, bodies of lumbar vertebrae ; — A, A,
spinous processes; — B, B, articular surfaces of transverse processes for the
tuberosities of the ribs ;— C, auricular surface of sacrum.

D

34 Artistic Anatomy.

more conspicuous as it corresponds to that part
of the neck where the trapezius muscle, repre-
sented only by a fibrous layer — not fleshy — forms
a flat surface at the back of the neck. In the
centre of this surface the projection of the seventh
cervical spine appears on the level of a transverse
line passing through the superior border of the
shoulder (see Fig. 3). It may be observed that
when the model bends the head forward the
spinous process of the seventh cervical becomes
very prominent. It should also be noted that in
the majority of cases the spinous processes of the
sixth cervical and first thoracic vertebrae also give
rise to superficial projections above and below that
produced by the vertebra promi?ie7is.

We have been disconnecting the vertebrae in
order to account for the construction of the ver-
tebral column ; we must next see how the different
vertebrae are placed one upon the other — how they
articulate in such a manner as to form a column,
not rigid, but elastic and curved. The vertebrae
are placed one on each other so that the inferior
articular processes of one fit exactly on to the
superior articular processes of the next beneath,
and thus throughout the series we see (Fig. 8)
that the bodies of the vertebrae are not in contact
one with the other, the space which separates them
being filled in the living subject by elastic fibrous
discs. These intervertebral discs are very thick
in the lumbar region, and become thinner in pro-
portion as we ascend to the superior dorsal and
cervical regions. They are thicker in the cervical
and lumbar regions than in the thorax ; and taken

Osteology and Arthrology in General. 35

together they form one-seventh of the length of
the spinal column. Being compressible and elastic,
these fibrous discs give to the column, formed by
the placing one on another of the bodies of the
vertebrae, a certain degree of flexibility, whereas a
column formed of bone alone would have been
quite rigid.

In addition to the intervertebral discs, a series
of ligaments which join together the posterior por-
tions of the neural arches {lamince) is of great
importance. Composed of yellow elastic tissue to
a large extent, they are known as the ligamenta
subflava. They consist of two shart bands placed
on each side of the root of the spinous process,
uniting the inferior border of the lamina of one
vertebra with the superior border of the lamina
situated next below it.

The yellow or elastic tissue which composes
these ligaments is similar to a piece of india-rub-
ber ; it is elastic — that is to say, it is able to stretch,
and to return again by its own reaction to its original
size when the cause which extended it has ceased
to act : so that each movement of flexion of the
column in front results in moving the vertebrae on
one another, at the same time stretching these elastic
ligaments. When the anterior muscles of the trunk
which accomplish this flexion cease to contract, it
is not necessary, in order to straighten the column,
that the posterior muscles of the back should come
into play ; the elasticity of the ligamenta subflava
suffices for this, as they return to their original
dimensions and draw together the vertebral laminae.
We may say, then, that there is at the posterior

36 Art IS tic A na tomy.

portion of the column within each vertebra a pair
of small springs which keeps the column erect/ so
that the erect attitude of the trunk is maintained
simply by the presence of the elastic ligaments ;
although more is required when a man supports
upon his back any extra weight or burden.

The Ligame7itiL7n Niichoe. (paxwax) is a large
and powerful ligament composed of yellow elastic
tissue. It is highly developed in quadrupeds, and
is attached between the spinous processes of the
cervical vertebrae and the occipital crest, a vertical
ridge on the back of the skull. In man it is a
rudimentary structure (as the head is poised on top
of the vertebral column) and forms a membranous
partition separating and giving partial attachment
to the muscles of either side at the back of the
neck.

Curves of the Vertebral Column. — The vertebral
column is subject to a shght lateral curvature,
generally towards the right side. Its chief curves,
however, are antero-posterior, and are four in
number (Fig. 8) : two, the thoracic and sacral curves,
concave forwards, are primitive embryonic curves ;
two, cervical and lumbar, convex forwards, are
secondary in their origin. The convexity forwards
of the cervical region is to be connected with the
raising upwards of the head on the trunk ; the
convex lumbar curve is due to the straightening
of the lower limb, which in the course of develop-
ment is brought into line with the vertebral axis.

These curves (except the pelvic or sacral curve)
are to be associated with a difference in the thick-
ness in front and behind of the vertebral bodies,

Osteology and Arthrology in General. 37

and of the intervertebral discs in the different regions
of the spine.

In most animals the vertebral column has but two
curves, one the cervical curve, which is convex
inferiorly, the other the dorso-lumbar, which is
concave inferiorly.

We have now to examine the influence that the
vertebral column has in moulding the external form
of the body, and to see if the length of the column
can be made use of for a system of proportion.

It is evident, in the first place, that the posterior
portions of the vertebrae only can affect the outline
of the body, the anterior portions, the bodies of the
vertebrae, being deeply hidden in the cavity of the
thorax and abdomen. Therefore, in the skeleton the
posterior surface of the vertebral column (Fig. 9)
presents itself under the aspect of a median crest,
formed by a series of spinous processes, the spinal
crest, on each side of which is a groove bounded
laterally by the series of transverse processes (the
vertebral furrow). In the living subject these
grooves are filled up by powerful and thick mus-
cles, which project in such a manner that in the
erect position the back presents a furrow in the
median line bounded on each side by these muscles,
at the bottom of which furrow the bony structure
of the vertebral column is shown only by a series
of projections placed one beneath the other, like
the beads of a necklace, each one being formed by
the summit or free extremity of a spinous process.
These projections are well seen in the thoracic
region, in which the curvature of the column is
convex backwards, and they show themselves still

38

A /? T/s TIC Ana tomy.

n 13 11

more clearly when the subject bends forward, and
thereby increases this curvature. They are not
visible in the cervical region, where
the ligamentum nuchse projects to
the surface, and a bed of powerful
muscles covers them ; but we have
seen that the seventh cervical, or
vertebra prominens — along with the
sixth also in many cases — is re-
markable for the projection which
its spinous process makes. Finally,
in the lumbar region these pro-
jections are but little marked, the
spinous processes here being short
and terminated not by points, but
by straight borders (Fig. 8).

The measurements of the ver-
tebral column are useful, on the
one hand, as absolute measurements
of length and height, and, on the
other hand, in giving the ratio of
its length to the stature of the
subject. The height of the ver-
tebral column in the average adult
man is from twenty -three to twenty-
four inches, being five for the cervical
region, eleven for the thoracic, and
seven inches for the lumbar region.
But as the length of the vertebral
column does not serve as a common

^v M

Vertebral Column (posterior view). — i, i, cervical transverse processes; —
2, 2, thoracic transverse processes ; — 3, 3, lumbar transverse processes ; — 7, 8,
9, 10, spinous processes;— II, 11, articular surfaces for occipital bone of skull *,
—12, odontoid process of the axis;— 13, 14, sacrum and coccyx.

Osteology and Arthrology in General, 39

measure for the total height of the body or
for its different parts, it cannot be used as
the basis of a system of proportion. A German
zoologist, Carus, has advanced the idea that

Fig. 10.
Outline of the Back and Shoulders.

the length ot the column forms one third of the
height ; but this proposition is not exact. On the
other hand, it is not easy to measure the column
from the atlas as far as the last lumbar vertebra,

40 Ar TIS tic a NA TOM Y.

without taking account of the sacrum and coccyx.
It will be more frequently found that the length
of the trunk, from the superior limit of the thorax
to the inferior limit of the pelvis, gives a measure-
ment more easy to take, and more useful for com-
paring the general proportions of the body.

It is enough to say here that the proportion of
the vertebral column to the height varies according
to age and sex, and according as the stature of
the individual is very great or very little ; the
vertebral column is, in fact, in comparison with
the height, longer in the infant and in the female
than in the adult male ; it is also much longer in
proportion to the height in subjects of short stature
than in tall people. The cause of difference of
stature between men and women, infants and adults,
long people and short, is principally due to the
length of the lower extremities — a question which
will be dealt with in a subsequent chapter.

41

CHAPTER IV.

THE THORAX.

The Sternum : its three portions — manubrium, gladiolus, xiphoid
appendage ; position and direction of the sternum ; its dimensions,
absolute and relative. — The ribs ; the true ribs, the false and floating
fibs ; the obliquity and curvature of the ribs. — Of the thorax in
general ; its posterior aspect, anterior aspect, and base.

We have already seen that that portion of the
vertebral column which is formed by the seven
cervical vertebrae is free, and forms of itself the
bon)^ structure of the neck. It is the same in the
lumbar region, where the five vertebrae alone form
the bony structure of the abdomen. The twelve
thoracic vertebrae, however, corresponding to the
upper two-thirds of the trunk, are in connection
with the ribs and sternum, and constitute with
these bones the osseous frame-work of the thorax.
The Sternum. — In the front part of the thorax
is the sternum, a bone in the middle line, single
and symmetrical (Fig. ii). This bone is, in quad-
rupeds, formed of a considerable number of separate
bones jointed together in a linear series. In the
human subject it consists of three separate parts,
one superior, one in the middle, and one inferior,
known respectively as the pre-sternum, meso-
Btemum, and meta-sternum. The whole bone has
been compared in shape to a short Roman sword,
of which the pre-sternum represents the handle,

42

Artistic Anatomy.

or mmiiibrium ; the meso-stemum, the longest
piece, is the body, or gladiolus; and the meta-
sternum, the pointed extremity of the sword, and
usually tipped with cartilage, is the ensiform or
xiphoid cartilage. Thus constituted, the sternum

Fig, II.

Thorax (anterior view). — i, pre-sternum, or manubrium of sternum; — 2.
meso-sternum, or body ; — 3, meta-sternum, or xiphoid appendage ; — 4, body of
first thoracic vertebra ; — 5, twelfth thoracic vertebra ; — 6 and 7, first and second
ribs ; — 8, 8, the true or sternal ribs ; — 9, 10, the floating ribs ; — 11, costal cartilages.

presents for our consideration an anterior surface,
a posterior surface, two lateral borders, an upper
and a lower extremity.

The anterior surface is smooth, but the union
of the manubrium with the body of the sternum
is marked by a prominent transverse ridge (sternal
angle), due to the difference in direction of the

The Thorax. 43

two pieces at their junction. This projecting angle
is very remarkable in some subjects^ and gives a
clearly marked convex shape to the superior por-
tion of the anterior surface of the thorax. The
posterior surface of the bone, which it is not necessary
for artists to study, is generally fiat, and presents
a returning angle corresponding to the projecting
angle of the anterior surface.

The superior extremity of the sternum, forming
the broader portion of the bone, is marked by three
notches, or depressions : two lateral, one on each
side, articulating with the inner end of the clavicle,
and one in the middle called the suprasternal,
or episternal, notch. This notch, which is easily
discerned on the living model, forms the inferior
border of the deep depression situated at the lower
part of the front of the neck. Its depth is still
further increased by the inner ends of the clavicles
and by the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles on either
side.

The inferior extremity of the sternum is formed
by the meta-sternum, or xiphoid appendage, which
remains very frequently in the cartilaginous state,
in the form of a plate, thin and tapering. In shape
and direction it is very variable, being sometimes
pointed, rounded, or bifurcated. It may be situated
in a plane corresponding to that of the body of the
sternum, or it may be placed obliquely or project
forwards or backwards. In a case where it pro-
jects in front it may cause a slight elevation of the
skin of the region of the pit of the stomach, or
epigastrium ; but it is a detail of form so irregular
that it is not worth reproducing, except in the

44 A^ TIS TIC A NA TOM Y.

representation of violent muscular exertion or ex-
treme attenuation.

The lateral borders of the sternum are not
vertical, but concave. The sternum is narrowest
at the manubrio- sternal junction, the manubrium
increasing in size towards its upper end, and the
gladiolus, or body of the bone, enlarging towards
its inferior part. Each lateral border is marked
by seven small notches, or depressions, for the
reception of the anterior extremity of each of the
cartilages of the first seven ribs. The highest of
these depressions is situated on the border of the
manubrium just below the clavicular articular sur-
face ; the second depression is situated opposite
the manubrio-sternal junction, partly on the pre-
sternum, partly on the meso-sternum ; those follow-
ing are situated on the edge of the body of the bone,
or meso-sternum, and the spaces between the
depressions become smaller as they approach its
lower extremity, so that the last depressions for
the sixth and seventh costal cartilages are almost
fused into one. The seventh costal cartilage is
usually attached opposite the sterno-xiphoid junc-
tion, and is thus connected with both meso-sternum
and meta-sternum.

It is necessary also to determine the exact
position and direction of the sternum in relation
to the other parts of the thorax^ in the complete
skeleton. The direction of the sternum, is not
vertical, but very oblique ; it forms an angle
of fifteen to twenty degrees, with a vertical
line passing through the inferior extremity
(Fig- 12), and an angle of seventy to seventy-five

The Thorax.

45

Presternum

A/lesosternum

Metasternum

degrees, with a horizontal hne passing through
the same extremity (Fig. 12). The manu-
brium is more obhque than the body of the
sternum, and the body of the sternum than the
xiphoid cartilage.
Such is the direc-
tion of the ster-
num in the male ;
in the female it
is less oblique,
and approaches
the vertical — a
disposition which
artists are prone
to exaggerate by
giving a more
rounded form to
the superior por-
tion of the thorax
in the female.

To compare
the relations of
the sternum with

the rest of the thorax, it is necessary further to
determine the level of the parts corresponding to
the two extremities in relation to the vertebral
column. The upper end of the sternum does not
correspond to the first thoracic vertebra, but rather
to the disc which separates the second and third,
so that the horizontal plane passing through the
superior extremity of the sternum strikes the second
thoracic vertebra at its lower part (Fig. 12). The
horizontal plane passing through the lower end of

Relations of the Sternum to the Vertebral
Column.

46 Artistic Anatomy,

the sternum strikes the tenth thoracic vertebra ;
so that, viewing the thorax in profile, the sternum
is seen to project between the second and eleventh
vertebrae. The exact level of the bone varies with
the movements of the chest wall in respiration.

The average length of the sternum in the adult
man is eight inches. The pre-sternum, or manu-
brium, is usually about half as long as the meso-
sternum, or body of the bone.

The most important measurement, however, is
the length of the sternum without the xiphoid
appendage, A measurement equivalent to the length
of the sternum is found in various parts of the
skeleton, which for the most part are adjacent to
the sternum, and the sternal length may be taken
as a common measure for constructing a correctly
proportioned torso.

As a fact, this measure of the length of the manu-
brium and body of the sternum is equal to (i) the
clavicle, to (2) the vertebral border of the shoulder-
blade, and to (3) the distance which separates the
two shoulder-blades in the figure when the arms
are hanging by the side ; further, the length of
the sternum is equal to (4) the length of the hand
without the third phalanx of the middle finger.

The Ribs.— The thoracic part of the vertebral
column and the sternum being known, it is easy
to understand the arrangement of the parts which
complete the thorax. These parts are the ribs and
costal cartilages, arranged somewhat like the hoops
of a cask, proceeding from the vertebral column to
the sides of the sternum ; the ribs articulate pos-
teriorly with the vertebral column, and are connected

The Thorax. 47

anteriorly to the sternum or to one another by
the costal cartilages. The ribs are twelve in number
on each side. They are known as first, second,
and third ribs, etc., counting from above downwards ;
the first seven are the true ribs^ or sternal ribs,
which have their costal cartilages directly joined
to the sternum ; the next three (eighth, ninth, and
tenth) ribs are the vertebro-costal ribs, as the costal
cartilage of each articulates with the cartilage of
the preceding rib ; the last two, the eleventh and
twelfth, are the false, floating or vertebral ribs :
they are remarkable for their shortness ; they are
provided at their extremities with only rudimentary
cartilages, which are pointed, and project by free
extremities among the muscles of the walls of the
abdomen.

In a general sense the ribs are long bones,
presenting an external surface and an internal
surface, a superior border and an inferior border.
They are not horizontal, but oblique, from above
downwards and from behind forwards : so that
the anterior extremity of a rib is always placed
on a lower level than its posterior extremity.

A typical rib possesses three curves. It is bent
from behind forwards in a downward direction ; it
is bent like the hoop of a cask in order to surround
the thorax, and presents, therefore, a curve similar
to that of a scroll, of which the convexity is turned
outwards and the concavity inwards ; and, again,
it is twisted upon itself as if the anterior extremity
had been forcibly carried inwards by a movement
of rotation upon its own axis. This curvature of
torsion makes the surface, which is really external

48 Artistic Anatomy.

in the central portion of the rib, become a superior
surface in the anterior portion. In order to have
a good idea of the torsion of the ribs it is necessary
to take a single rib and place it on a horizontal
surface, such as a table ; it will be then seen that,
instead of its being in contact through its entire
extent with the flat surface, it touches it only at
two points, as if it formed a half-hoop of a cask to
which a slight spiral twist had been given.

The ribs vary much in length, in order to corre-
spond to the ovoid shape of the thorax ; their length
increases from the first to the eighth, which is the
longest, and corresponds to the largest part of the
thorax ; and it gradually diminishes from the eighth
to the twelfth.

A typical rib (Fig. 13) consists of the following
portions, an indication of which is useful for the study
of the shape of the thorax. The posterior extremity
is slightly raised, and constitutes the head of the rib.
It is shaped like a wedge, and articulates with the
bodies of two vertebrae as a rule, and it is received,
precisely like a wedge, into the space which separates
the bodies of these vertebrae ; so that it is in contact
by the summit of the wedge with the intervertebral
disc, and by the surfaces of the wedge with the
vertebra which is situated above and that which is
situated below the disc. Beyond the head, the rib
presents a portion thin and compressed from before
backwards, called the neck of the rib, which is placed
in front of the transverse process of the vertebra
corresponding to it.

At the external extremity of the neck is a slight
enlargement called the tubercle, which corresponds

The Thorax, 49

to the level of the external extremity of the trans-
verse process of the vertebra^ and which articulates
with the corresponding transverse process (Fig. 7,
F g). By means of the connections of the head
with the bodies of the vertebrae, and of the tubercle
of the rib with the transverse process of the thoracic
vertebra which corresponds to it, the posterior end
of the rib moves on these joints as on a fulcrum,

Fig. 13. — A Typical Rib.

in the act of respiration ; the chest cavity being
enlarged by the uplifting of the shaft of the rib
and by the eversion of the rib simultaneously.

Passing on from the tubercle, the shaft of the
rib is formed of a bar of bone, which at first is
directed outwards and backwards (Fig. 13);
then, after travelling some distance, it bends
abruptly, so as to be directed forward, describing
the characteristic curve of the rib. We give to
this bend the name of the angle of the rib.
The series of the angles of the ribs shows,
upon the posterior aspect of the thorax, a line
plainly visible, curved, with its convexity outwards,
and having its summit at the level of the eighth
rib, which is the longest, and upon which a relatively

£

50

Artistic Anatomy.

greater distance separates the angle from the
tubercle.

Such are the characters of ribs in general. For
the peculiar characters of the several ribs, after we
have spoken of the last two ribs, it will suffice to

Fig. 14.

Thorax (posterior view). — i, i, spinous processes of the thorac^p vertebrae ; —
2, 2, vertebral laminae; — 3, 3, series of transverse processes; — 4, 4, the parts of
the ribs included between the tuberosities and the angles of the ribs ; — 5, 5,
angles of the ribs, becoming more distant from the vertebral column as the
rib becomes more inferior.

note the shortness of the upper ribs, and principally
of the first, which is flattened from above downward.
In other words, it is curved along the borders, and
not along the surfaces, and it does not present any
twist. The last two ribs, besides being the shortest
as a rule (excepting the first rib), are peculiar in
their straightness and in the rudimentarv nature of

The Thorax, 51

the angles ; they further have no articulation
with the transverse processes of the corresponding
vertebrae.

The costal cartilages are attached to the ex-
tremities of the ribs in front : these cartilages, in
proceeding to join the sternum, follow a course more
or less oblique, so that the cartilage of the first
rib is oblique from above downwards, and from
without inwards ; and those following present the
same obliquity (Fig. 11), which becomes more
accentuated in the cartilages lower down. The
spaces which separate these cartilages are wide
above, especially between the cartilages of the
three first ribs, and become narrower towards the
lower part of the chest.

The Thorax as a Whole, — The thorax, the con-
stituent parts of which we have just examined, forms
a kind of truncated cone, with its base below and its
apex above ; but, from an artist's point of view as
to form, it is not necessary to take this into
account, as the shape of the summit of the thorax
is completely changed by the addition of the osse-
ous girdle constituted by the clavicle and shoulder-
blade

We limit ourselves, then, to a rapid view of the
posterior surface, the anterior surface, and the base of
the thorax.

The posterior surface (Fig. 14) presents upon the
skeleton, in the median line, the series of spinous
processes, and on each side, first a row of transverse
processes and then the angles of the ribs. As already
explained (p. 37), respecting these several details,
the summits of the spinous processes, although just

52 Artistic Anatomy.

under the skin, are scarcely visible, especially in a
very muscular subject.

On the anterior surface of the thorax (Figs, ii,
15), in a muscular subject, the osseous details do not
show on the external figure, with the exception of the
epister7ial or suprasternal notch (p. 43), and the inner
ends ot the clavicles, which are more or less visible.
The great pectoral muscles form on each side a large
fleshy surface, and the median line of separation of
these muscles is marked by a narrow depression
corresponding to the central portion of the sternum,
the only region where this bone becomes sub-
cutaneous ; but in less muscular subjects, in the
aged and in thin children, all the details of the
thoracic frame-work show beneath the skin, and
clearly reveal the forms of the costal cartilages
with their obliquities, the thin intervals of separation
{intercostal spaces) becoming narrower as we get lower
down. Moreover, especially in infants, the articulation
of the cartilages with the sternum, and the articulation
of the cartilages with the anterior extremities of the
ribs, are shown by a double row of nodules, as the
points of junction of the osseous and cartilaginous
portions are slightly elevated. We find therefore a
series of chondro- sternal nodules {yov^po^^ cartilage)
marking the borders of the sternum, and, on the
outer side, a series of chondro-costal nodules, mark-
ing the line of junction of the ribs with the
cartilages. This chondro-costal hne descends
obliquely from within outwards ; so that, above,
it is very near the sternum, owing to the short-
ness of the cartilage of the first rib, and, below,
it is withdrawn from the sternum owing to the

The Thorax,

53

greater length of tlie cartilages of the ninth and
tenth ribs.

The base, or inferior circwn/erence, of the thorax
is continuous, without distinct limits upon the living
subject, with the
abdominal wall
behind and later-
ally ; but in front
this circumference
presents a de-
pression in the
form of an in-
verted V, with
the mouth look-
ing downwards
(Fig. ii) ; this de-
pression, limited
on both sides by
the cartilages of
the lower six ribs,
and correspond-
ing at its apex to
the junction of
the body of the
sternum with its
costo-xiphoid ap- fig. 15.

pendage, snows m front view of the chest and abdomen.
the living subject

a depression of the same form, called the pit
of the stomach, or epigastrium (eirl, upon ; yaaTi]p,
stomach). Upon the dead body, or upon a
model in a state of repose, the outlines of the
pit may be compared to a pointed arch ; but

54 A^ 7^/5 TIC A NA TOMY.

when the model makes a violent effort, as in
taking a deep inspiration, the elevation of the
ribs spreads the cartilages of the false ribs from
the median line, and the pointed arch in question
shortens and tends to take a rounded form, On the
other hand, in very muscular subjects, the great an-
terior muscles of the abdomen are sufQciently thick at
their superior parts, where they cover the cartilages
of the false ribs, to add their shape to that of the
cartilages, and to give to the epigastric region a
more rounded form. It is this form of a rounded
arch that the Greek sculptors have adopted almost
exclusively, and this choice we find justified to some
extent in the fact that they had for their models very
muscular athletes, whom they studied during the
wrestling-matches of the gymnasium, when efforts
which dilated the thorax most powerfully were to
be observed.

55

CHAPTER V.

THE SHOULDER.

The bones of the shoulder. — The clavicle : its shaft and extremities,
sternal and acromial : its proportions. — The shoulder-blade : its
situation and relations. — The spine of the scapula: acromion:
coracoid process : glenoid cavity. — Proportions of the scapula : the
distance which separates the right from the left scapula. — The upper
portion of the humerus : the anatomical neck, the surgical neck : the
articular head : the tuberosities. — The shoulder-joint : its movements :
the increase of mobility assured by the acromio-clavicular and sterno-
clavicular articulations the to-and-fro motion of the scapula : the
importance of this mechanism with regard to external form.

The shoulder is formed of three bones, of which
one is situated in the front, the collar-bone y or
clavicle ; a second is behind, the shoulder-blade^ or
scapula ; and a third is placed externally, the upper
part of the arfn-bone, or humerus.

The clavicle {clavicular diminutive of clavzs, a
key) is a long bone, placed horizontally at the
junction of neck and chest. It connects the
breast-bone with the shoulder-blade ; and the two
clavicles are separated in the middle line by the
upper end of the manubrium, or pre-sternum (epi-
sternal or suprasternal notch). Its form is that of
an italic/— that is to say, it describes in a horizontal
plane two curves, the internal portion being convex
in front, and the outer part convex behind (Fig. i6).
It consists of a shaft and two extremities : the
shaft, flattened from above down, presents a smooth
superior surface, which in the model shows very
clearly beneath the skin, and a rough inferior surface

56 Artistic Anatomy,

for the attachment of a muscle (subclavius), and for
the attachment of hgaments connecting it with the
first rib internally, and with the coracoid process of
the scapula externally (see below); it possesses a
posterior and an anterior border, thick and curved :
an internal, sternal extrefnity, thick and triangular,
which articulates with the corresponding lateral facet

on the manubrium of
the sternum : and an
Older, acromial ex-
tremity, flattened and
Fig. i6. presenting an oval ar-

RiGHT Clavicle: Upper Surface.- ticular SUrfaCC for articU-

I. body of clavicle ;-2, 3. inner or ster- j ^. -^^ ^| aCrOmioU

nal extremity ;— 4, 5, outer or acromial

extremity. prOCCSS of thC SCapula.

The clavicle thus serves
to connect the scapula to the trunk, and by the articu-
lations of its two extremities it increases, as we shall
see, the mobiHty of the shoulder-joint. We find that
the clavicle, which is almost horizontal when the
arms are hanging in an attitude of repose beside the
trunk, becomes oblique in direction when the arms
are moved upward and forward, or upward and
backward. The length of the clavicle, as we have
already said (p. 46), should be equal to that of
the sternum without the xiphoid appendix.

The shoulder-blade, or scapula, is a flat, triangular
bone, and consists of a bony plate very thin at
certain points, and thickened only along its borders.
It is placed on the lateral and posterior aspect of
the thorax, and corresponds at its upper border to
the second rib : its lower end reaches to the seventh
or eighth rib. It is attached by a joint called the

The Shoulder.

57

acromio-clavicular articulation, which can be felt
beneath the skin, to the external extremity of the
clavicle. As this joint is the only ligamentous con-
nection of the scapula with the trunk, the bone is
capable of great freedom of movement.

The shoulder-blade
is described as possess-
ing two surfaces, three
borders, three processes,
and three angles. The
posterior surface, free
and visible throughout
its entire extent upon
the mounted skeleton,
is divided into two
unequal portions — the
upper one, the smaller
{supraspinous fossa) and
the lower one, the larger
{infra - spiiious fossa)
— by a bony crest, called
the spine of the scapula
(lo, II, Fig. 17), which
traverses the bone
obliquely from within
upwards and outwards.
It becomes more and
more prominent ex-
ternally, and is after-
wards prolonged into a free process, broad and flat,
which forms the most elevated and external part of
the skeleton of the shoulder (12, Fig. 17), and is known
by the name of the acrotnion process (axpo<;, summit ;

Fig. 17.

Shoulder-blade : Posterior Sur-
face.— I, supra-spinous fossa;— 2, infra-
spinous fossa;— 3, superior border with
supra-scapular notch (4);— 5, external
or axillary border with impression for
attachment (8) of the long head of the
triceps;- 6, glenoid cavity;— 7, inferior
angle ;— 9, internal or vertebral border ;
—10 and II, spine of shoulder-blade ex-
tending into acromion process (12) ;—
14, coracoid process.

58 A J? T/S TIC A NA TOM Y.

Mfxo^, the shoulder). It is on the internal or anterior
border of this acromion process that the small oval
facet is found, by which the scapula articulates with
the outer extremity of the clavicle by the acromio-
clavicular articulation. The fossa above the spine
of the scapula is the supraspinous fossa (i, Fig. 17);
and the larger space below the spine is called the
infra-spinous fossa (2, Fig. 17). The anterior sur-
face of the scapula has received the name of the
subscapular fossa. It is directed forwards and
inwards, and is separated from the ribs and arm^
pit by large muscles. It is but little visible in the
articulated skeleton.

Of the three borders of the scapula, one is superior
and horizontal ; it is the shortest of the three. The
second is internal and vertical, parallel to the series
of spinous processes of the vertebras ; to this is
given the name of the vertebral border. The third,
or outer border, is oblique, and is directed down-
wards and backwards ; it corresponds to the region
of the arm-pit, and has received the name of the
axillary border. It is particularly to be noticed that
the vertebral border is thin ; the axillary border,
on the contrary, is thick, and presents towards its
superior limit a rough space, just below the glenoid
fossa, for the attachment of the long head of the
triceps muscle (8, Fig. 17). The superior border
is remarkable for the presence at its outer extremity
of a stout process which projects at first upwards,
and is afterwards bent outwards upon itself like a
bent finger. It has been likened to the beak of a crow,
and has received the name of the coracoid process
{Kopa^, a crow ; elSos, form). The coracoid process

The Shoulder. 59

(14, Fig. 17) is placed in front and on the inner
side of the acromion, and the two together form an
arch over the shoulder-joint, called the coraco-
acromial arch, which is completed by a fibrous band
proceeding from one process to the other, and
called the coraco-acromial ligament. The position
of the coracoid process should be particularly noted
in relation to the clavicle. It underlies the outer
part of the clavicle, from which two important
ligaments {conoid and trapezoid ligaments) descend
to be attached to its upper surface. These ligaments
serve the purpose of slinging the scapula up to the
under surface of the clavicle. Of the three angles of
the scapula, one only — the superior external angle,
which is situated beneath the coraco-acromial arch
— deserves a particular description ; it is very thick,
and becomes enlarged to form an articular surface
(6, Fig. 17), which is directed outwards and forwards,
and articulates with the head of the humerus. This
surface is pear-shaped and is slightly hollowed out,
and bears the name of the glenoid cavity. It is much
less extensive than the articular head of the humerus,
along with which it forms the shoulder-joint.

In regard to the relative proportions of the
scapula, it may be noted that the length of the
vertebral border is equal to the length of the clavicle,
and equal also to the distance which separates the
scapulae behind, when the vertebral borders are
vertical, which is the case when the arms are
hanging beside the body in a position of relaxa-
tion.

The movements of the shoulder-blade, and their
effects on external form, will be studied in relation

6o

A R TIS TIC A NA TOMY.

$^

to the articulation of the scapula with the humerus,
the scapidO'hii7?ieral articulation, or shoulder-joint.
We must now pass on to describe
the upper portion of the bone of
the arm.

The arm bone, or hiimerus^ is
one of the long bones, and is com-
posed of a shaft, prismatic or
nearly cylindrical in form, and of
two enlarged extremities, one inferior,
which takes part in the articulation
of the elbow ; the other superior,
which takes part in the articulation
of the shoulder. We will only
concern ourselves for the present
with the superior extremity.

The superior extremity of the
humerus is large and spherical. It
is continuous with the body of the
bone by a cylindrical neck, called
the surgical neck of the humerus.
This extremity is traversed by a
circular groove, oblique from above
downwards, and from without in-
wards, called the anatomical neck
(3, Fig. 18). This is well marked,
and divides the sphere into two
parts ; the one, situated above, and
internal to the anatomical neck, is
very regularly rounded, smooth,
covered over by a layer of cartilage,
and is called the head of the humerus
(2, Fig. 18) ; it is normally in contact

m

^Yi,

Fio. 18.

Left Humerus
(anterior surface):
I , body of the bone ;
—2, articular head ;
—3, anatomical
neck; — 4, great tu-
berosity ; — 5, lesser
tuberosity ;— 6, bi-
cipital groove; — 7,
deltoid impression ;
— II, capitellum ; —
12, trochlea ; ^ 13,
external supra-con-
dyloid ridge ;— 14,
condyles ; — 16, in-
ternal supra-condy-
loid ridge ; — 17,
coronoid fossa.

The Shoulder, , 6i

with the glenoid cavity of the shoulder-blade, in
which it glides in the movements of the arm ;
the other part of the head, situated below, and
external to the anatomical neck, is rough, and
divided into two tuberosities by a vertical groove,
which is prolonged as far as the upper part of the
body of the bone, and which, from its serving to
accommodate the long tendon of the biceps, has
received the name of the bicipital groove (6,
Fig. 1 8). The tuberosity situated on the outer side
of the bicipital groove is large, and is called the
great tuberosity (4, Fig. 18) ; it presents three
small surfaces which receive the insertions of the
deep muscles of the shoulder — supra-spinatus, infra-
spinatus, and teres minor muscles. The tuberosity
situated on the front of the bone, and internal to
the bicipital groove, is smaller. It is called the
small tuberosity of the humerus (5, Fig. 18), and
gives attachment to one muscle only, the sub-
scapularis.

The Shoulder-joint. — The articulation of the
shoulder, or scapulo-humeral articulation, may serve
as a type of articulations in general. It is necessary
in each articulation to consider how the shapes of
the bony surfaces in contact correspond to each
other. From this we should be able to deduce
the nature of the movements permitted by the
articulation. It is also necessary to consider the
disposition of the ligaments ; that is to say, of the
fibrous bands which proceed from one bone to the
other, and from these we can deduce the limits
of the movements of which the joint may be
capable.

62

A R TIS TIC A NA TOMY.

The scapulo-humeral articulation is a ball-
and-socket joint; formed by the glenoid cavity
of the shoulder-blade and the head of the hu-
merus.

Such an arrangement of surfaces in contact with

one another permits the
head to glide in all direc-
tions within the cavity,
and consequently the upper
hmb can be moved in
all directions : forwards ;
backwards ; inwards (ad-
duction) ; outwards (abduc-
tion) ; upwards and down-
wards. The head of the
humerus can also be ro-
tated on the glenoid cavity,
either inwards or out-
wards.

The ligamentous cover-
ing of the joint is formed
by a fibrous capsule, which
is attached on one side to
the margin of the glenoid
cavity, and on the other
side to the anatomical
neck of the humerus (5, Fig. 19).

This ligamentous capsule is sufficiently loose to
allow the head of the humerus great freedom of
movement within the glenoid cavity, without any
part of the capsule being put on the stretch, and
thus stopping its movement. Thus the movement
of the arm forwards is very extensive, as are those

Fig. ig.

Ligaments of Shoulder, with
Scapula, Clavicle, and Humerus.

— I, Acromio-clavicular ligament;

— 2, coraco-clavicular ligament; — 3,
coraco-acrontial ligament ; — 4, supra-
scapular ligament;— 5, capsule of
shoulder-joint ; — 6, coraco -humeral
ligament ; — 7, tendon of biceps (long
head).

The Shoulder, 63

backwards and directly inwards, this last being
checked only by the meeting of the arm with the
lateral surface of the trunk. But the movement
of abduction, or of elevation outwards, becomes
difficult when the arm approaches the horizontal ;
here an arrangement comes into play which is of
great importance, the study of which shows us
that the upper limb, besides the mobihty which
belongs to the shoulder-joint proper (scapulo-
humeral articulation), derives an increase of mo-
bility from the articulations of the shoulder-blade
with the clavicle, and of the clavicle with the
sternum.

When we apply a humerus to the glenoid fossa of
the scapula in such a manner as to draw the arm
outwards, we observe that at the moment when the
humerus attains the horizontal position, the tuberosi-
ties touch the coraco-acromial arch which surmounts
the glenoid cavity, and which is completed by the
coraco-acromial ligament (3, Fig. 19) ; in the com-
plete subject, in the living man, when the arm is ele-
vated in carrying it outwards, the same effect of meet-
ing and, so to speak, of contact between the tuber-
osities of the humerus and the acromial arch is pro-
duced, with this result — that the arm, once horizontal,
is with difficulty raised higher by the simple play of
the scapulo-humeral articulation — that is to say, by
the gliding of the head of the humerus in the glenoid
cavity. But now a new source of mobility is em-
ployed, a new articulation is brought into play — that
of the acromio-clavicular joint. The entire scapula
moves round the extremity of the clavicle ; its in-
ferior angle is carried forward ; its external angle —

64

Artistic Anatomy,

that is to say, the glenoid cavity with the coraco-
acromial arch — is carried upwards, and the movement
of elevation of the arm is then continued bv the
play of the shoulder-blade.

As the result is an important change of shape

in the shoulder,
we ought to par-
ticularly exam-
ine the shoulder
in the region of
the back, upon a
model in which
the arm is raised
above the hori-
zontal position.
The point of the
shoulder is
raised, and as
this elevation is
accompanied by
a movement of
the shoulder-
blade, the vertebral border of this bone does not remain
parallel to the spinal column, but while it approaches
closer to it at its upper end, it is drawn further away
at its lower end, and is obliquely directed from above
downwards and outwards (Fig. 20). The inferior angle
becomes prominent in the lower part of the armpit, as
we may observe in a subject with the arms folded, and
shows in a striking manner on a dead crucified body. If
the elevation of the arm approaches the vertical, the
vertebral border of the shoulder-blade has a tendency
to become horizontal, and we observe this change

Fig. 20.
Outline op Shoulder with the Arm Raised.

The Shoulder. 65

of movement in the model when the bone is seen
along the posterior surface of the shoulder and the
back, and we should scarcely recognise at first the
appearances presented as those we are accustomed
to study when it occupies its ordinary situation in
the skeleton.

But when the arm is elevated vertically, so that it
comes in contact with the side of the head, move-
ment takes place not only at the scapulo-humeral
and at the acromio-clavicular joints, but also at the
articulation of the internal extremity of the clavicle
with the sternum. In that case, in fact, the whole of
the shoulder is raised upwards (by the superior fibres
of the trapezius muscle), and the clavicle represents
the arm of the lever by which this movement is
accomphshed, while the sterno-clavicular articulation
is the hinge. Thus we see the clavicle is changed in
its direction, from the horizontal, to become oblique
upwards and outwards — that is, its external extremity
is raised and carried a little backwards.

The clavicle plays a very important part in the
movements of the upper limb. This explains why
it is found specially developed in those animals
whose fore-limbs possess the most specialised move-
ments— flight, digging, burrowing, striking, or hug-
ging— such as man, the monkey, the bat, the tiger,
the mole, etc. ; while in those quadrupedal animals
which, like the horse, use their fore-limbs for pro-
gression only, and in which movements occur only
in a plane parallel to that of the body, there is
not a trace of clavicle. The part which the clavicle
takes in the movements of the arm explains also
why the bone presents a variable size in different

66 Ar tistic a na tomy.

individuals. It is stronger in the male than in the
female ; stronger in the working man than in the
student ; stronger, finally, on the right side than the
left, from the habit of using the right arm for the
most part in those actions which demand strength
and skill. In the left-handed, it is the left clavicle
that is stronger than the right. In a word, this
bone is, like all the other parts of the skeleton,
stronger in proportion as it takes part in active and
frequently repeated movements. Thus the breadth
of the shoulders is one of the characteristics of
athletes ; and it is to the strength of the bony
structure formed by the clavicle and shoulder-blade,
sustained by the first ribs, that the superior portion
of the thorax owes its characteristic aspect.

Owing to the presence of the shoulder girdle
(scapula and clavicle) the thoracic cage does not
present much of the form of a cone at its upper
end, or summit ; indeed, this region becomes broader
in a lateral direction as the clavicle is more de-
veloped. It will be enough to contrast the region
of the thorax in man with that oi such animals as
the dog or the horse, which, owing to the absence
of a clavicle, have a thorax transversely flattened
in the region of the shoulders, and consequently
the shoulder-blades more closely applied upon the
sides of the thoracic cage.

This is the proper place to discuss the dimen-
sions and proportions of the shoulder; but, as this
study consists entirely of a comparison of the trans-
verse diameters of the shoulders with the transverse
diameters of the hips, it is better to defer it till after
the description of the pelvis.

67

CHAPTER VI.

THE HUMERUS AND ELBOW-JOINT.

The bony structure of the arm and elbow. — The shaft of the humerus. —
The axis of the arm and forearm. — Spiral groove of the humerus ;
the inferior extremity of the humerus ; the trochlea and capitellum ;
the external and internal supra-condyloid ridges. — The superior ex-
tremities of the two bones of the forearm ; the ulna (sigmoid
cavities, olecranon process, coronoid process) ; radius (head, neck). —
The articulation of the elbow ; transverse hinge joint. — Movements
of flexion and extension ; lateral movements. — The external form of
the elbow ; prominence of the internal condyle and olecranon process

The shaft of the humerus is prismatic in its upper
and middle parts, and flattened from front to back
at its lower extremity. Covered over by thick
muscles, its outward shape has for us but little
interest ; it is necessary only to note with regard
to its direction that, when the arm is hanging down,
the humerus is not altogether vertical, but is tilted
slighth' downwards and inwards. We shall see
that the axis of the bones of the forearm is oblique
in the opposite direction ; for this reason the arm
and forearm form at the elbow a very obtuse angle,
looking outwards (Figs. 24, 26).

Among the details to be noted upon the shaft
of the humerus, the bicipital groove is worthy of
remark. This vertical groove, which separates the
great from the small tuberosity on the front of the
humerus at its upper end (Fig. 18), is prolonged
along the shaft of the bone, and presents an in-
ternal lip slightly prominent, and an external or
anterior lip which is much more marked, which gives

68 Artistic Anatomy.

insertion to the broad tendon of the great pectoral
muscle. At the line of junction of the superior
with the middle third of the bone, this lip forms
the anterior margin of a rough surface shaped like
the letter V (7, Fig. 18), of which the angle looks
downwards, and which, giving insertion to the
deltoid muscle, has received the name of the deltoid
impression. On the back of the humerus is another
groove, broad and shallow, called the spiral groove
of the humerus, which passes dov/nwards and out-
wards along the shaft of the bone behind and
below the deltoid impression.

The inferior extremity of the humerus deserves
to be studied in detail, as its shape gives the key
to the movements of the elbow-joint, and explains
at the same time several features of the region to
be seen in the living model. This extremity is
flattened from front to back, and is enlarged into a
broad surface which is partly articular, partly non-
articular. In the middle are two important articu-
lar prominences, smooth and covered with cartilage.
Of these the internal portion is called the trochlea
{trochlea y pulley). It possesses a groove and two
unequal marginal ridges. The internal ridge is
more prominent and descends lower than the ex-
ternal one. The other projection (11, Fig. 18),
which is situated on the outer side of the trochlea,
is rounded in shape, and receives the name of the
radial head, or capitelhim. It is only obvious
when the humerus is looked at from the front or
from below : in other words, it does not appear
(like the trochlear surface) on the posterior aspect
of the lower end of the bone. This surface articu-

The Humerus and Elbow-Joint. 6g

lates with the upper end of the radius. There
are three depressions, or fossae, to be seen in rela-
tion to the articular surfaces of the lower end of
the humerus. On the front of the bone, just above
the trochlea and capitellum, are two, which receive
the bones of the forearm during flexion of the
limb : the coronoid fossa (for the coronoid process
of the ulna), above the trochlear surface, and the
radial depression for the head of the radius, much
shallower, and placed above the capitellum. On
the back, above the trochlear surface, is the
olecranon fossa, into which the olecranon process is
received during extension of the forearm.

The lateral portions of the inferior extremity
of the humerus are formed by rough, non-articular
projections which give attachment to muscles and
ligaments, and are known respectively as the external
condyle and the internal condyle of the humerus
(14, 14, Fig. 18). Above each condyle is a well-
marked bony ridge, which is called the supra-
condyloid ridge (external or internal) (13, 13, Fig. 18).

The lower end of the humerus articulates with
the upper extremities of the bones of the fore-
arm ; and we will next proceed to study the
formation of these extremities in order to under-
stand the movements of the elbow-joint and the
form of the region.

The forearm is formed of two bones (Fig. 21),
which, when the upper limb is hanging beside the
body, the palmar surface of the hand being turned
forwards, are placed parallel to each other — one
on the outer, one on the inner side. The inner
bone (i, Fig. 21) is called the ulna, or cubitus.

70

A R TIS TIC A NA TOMY.

13

and it is that which by its upper extremity
{olecranon) forms the bony prominence of the
elbow; the outer bone (lo, Fig. 21)
is called the radius (from the Latin
radius^ a spoke of a wheel), and it
A'i'/mT. is by this bone chiefly that the
bones of the wrist and hand are
carried. For the present we will
describe only the upper extremities
of these two bones (Figs. 21 and 22).
14 The superior extremity of the

ulna presents two processes and
10 two articular cavities. The cavities
are the greater and lesser sigmoid
cavities ; the processes are the coro-
noid and olecranon processes. The
bone articulates with the pulley or
trochlea of the humerus by means
of the great sigmoid cavity^ and
with the margin of the head of
the radius by the lesser sigmoid
cavity. The greater sigmoid cavity
(2, Fig. 21) presents in its centre a
ridge prominent from before back-
wards, which corresponds to the
groove . in the trochlea of the
humerus. Below and in front, the
great sigmoid cavity is formed (5,
Fig. 21) by a bony prominence
tubercle for biceps;' Called thc coronoid process (com-

-14, impression for p^^.^^ ^^ ^J^g ^g^J^ ^f ^ CrOW :

pronator teres mus- ^

cle ;— 15, inferior ex- KOpcovrj, 3, CrOW ; eI8o9, form), wllich

tremityofradiuswith • i i i • ii -j r £

styloid process (i6) IS lociged m the coronoid fossa of

8 ]5

Fig. 21.
The Bones of
THE Forearm (an-
terior surface) : i,
shaft of ulna; — 2,
great sigmoid cavity;
— 3, lesser sigmoid
cavity virith head of
radius ; — 4, olecra-
non ; — 5, coronoid
process ; — 7, interos-
seous space ; — 8, in-
ferior extremity of
ulna with styloid pro-
cess (9) ; — 10, shaft
of radius ; — 11, its

The Humerus and Elbow-Joint. 71

the humerus in flexion of the forearm (17, Fig. 18).

Above and behind, the great sigmoid cavity is

formed by the olecranon process (onXeprj, the elbow ;

KapTjvov, the head), a hirge square projection.. (4,

Fig. 21), which constitutes the prominent point of

the elbow, and which accentuates in a high degree

the form of the forearm during

flexion. During extension of the

forearm the olecranon process is

lodged partly in the olecranon

fossa of the humerus (4, Fig. 23).

The lesser sigmoid cavity of the

ulna is a small concave surface

placed on the outer side of the

coronoid process for articulation

with the margin of the head of

the radius.

The superior extremity of the
radius forms a small discoidal
head (11, Fig. 21) attached by
a narrow neck to the body of
the bone ; this head is flattened
at the top and hollowed out to
articulate with the capitellnm of
the humerus (Fig. 22). The margin of the head
of the radius revolves in the lesser sigmoid cavity
of the ulna.

We see, then, that the articular surfaces of the
elbow are formed on the humerus (6, 7, 8, Fig. 22)
by a transverse series of projections (the trochlea
and capitellnm), and on the bones of the fore-
arm by a series of depressions moulded on these
projections, so that the whole describes a movement

Fig. 22.

Figure of the Elbow
Joint, right side (an-
teriorview) : — i, inferior
portion of shaft of hume-
rus ; — 2, ulna;— 3, radius ;
— 4, external condyle ; —
5, internal condyle; — 6,
capitellum ; — 7 and 8,
trochlea ; — 9, coronoid
fossa ; — 10, coronoid pro-
cess ; — II, head of radius.

72 A I? TIS TIC A NA TOMV.

similar to that between two cog-wheels (Fig. 22) ^
a species of transverse hinge. Thus it is easy to
understand, a priori^ how this disposition of the parts
does not permit of any lateral displacement of the
bones, or transverse movement ; the movements
forward and backward are, in fact, the only kind
possible in the elbow-joint. The forward move-
ment— that is to say, that by which the anterior
surface of the forearm is brought near the anterior
surface of the arm — constitutes flexion of the fore-
arm. The movement in the opposite direction
constitutes extension.

The disposition of the ligaments — that is, of the
fibrous bands or articular capsule which fasten the
bones together — modifies very slightly the mechanism
we have just deduced from the shape of the articular
surfaces ; in fact, this capsule is formed on the inner
and outer surfaces by ligamentous fibres, very dense
and short, called the lateral ligaments, which prevent
all lateral movement. On the other hand, the
anterior and posterior portions of the capsule are
loose, so as not to offer any opposition to the
movements of flexion and extension. The only
limit to these movements is that resulting from the
bony projections of the ulna coming in contact with
the humerus. Thus, the movement of flexion can
be prolonged until the coronoid process arrives at
the coronoid fossa and touches the bottom of that
cavity ; then the fleshy masses of the forearm come
into contact with the anterior surface of the arm,
especially if the model is muscular, and flexion is
no longer possible. The movement of extension, on
the contrary, has a limit which it is important to

The Humerus and Elbow- Joint. 73

state precisely, resulting from the beak of the
olecranon touching the bottom of the olecranon
fossa (Fig. 2^ ; this is produced when the fore-
arm has attained, in the movement of extension,
that situation which brings its own axis into direct
line with that of the arm. The extension of the
elbow cannot therefore exceed
the degree which brings the
humerus and forearm into the
same plane ; that is to say, the
forearm can never make with the
arm an angle facing backwards.

By comparing the particulars
of the mechanism of the elbow
with that which we have pre-
viously seen of the mechanism of
the scapulo-humeral articulation,
it will be easy to understand
how we may, from the study of
the articular surfaces and liga-
ments, learn the laws of the
mechanism of joints. For ex-
ample, the head of the humerus
received into a single concavity may allow to the
arm every kind of movement ; in the same way
the arrangement of a hinge-joint, with a series of
projections and depressions, fitted one to the other
in a transverse line, renders possible in the elbow-
joint only the movements of flexion and exten^sion.

In regard to external form, we learn the following
facts from a knowledge of the bones which form
the elbow-joint.

I. With respect to the angle which the forearm

Fig. 23.

ANTERO - POSTERIOR
SECTION OF THE ElBOW

(through the ulna):— i,
humerus; — 2, ulna; — 3,
coronoid fossa; — 4, ole-
cranoid fossa ; — 5, ole-
cranon; — 6, coronoid
process; — 7, section of
trochlea.

74

A R TIS TIC A NA TOM Y.

makes with the arm, if we examine it either upon
the skeleton or upon the hving subject, the upper
limb hanging beside the body, with the palm of the

hand turned forward, it is
seen that the humerus
((page 6y) is slightly ob-
"^ lique from above down-
wards and inwards, while
the two bones of the
forearm are directed ob-
liquely in the opposite
direction — that is, from
above downwards and out-
wards. In other words,
the bones of the arm and
forearm form at their
point of junction — that is,
at the level of the elbow
— an angle the base of
which looks outwards and
the apex inwards. This
angle only appears in
extension of the limb,
and is due to the twisted
and tilted form of the
trochlear surface of the
humerus.

2. Concerning the bony
prominences which are
seen beneath the skin at
the elbow (Fig. 24), after
studying these osseous struc-

OuTLiNE OF Upper Limb (front , i i i i it

view) tures, we should be able to

The Humerus and Elbow-Joint. 75

recognise upon the living model those details of
the figure which correspond to the four bony points —
namely, the coronoid process in front, the olecranon
behind, the external condyle on the outer side, and
the internal condyle on the inner side. The coronoid
process, covered by muscles, is so buried in the
surrounding structure that it does not show extern-
ally. It is much the same also with the external
condyle, as this projection, not very prominent in
the skeleton, disappears completely in the living
subject, since this external condyle is situated at
the bottom of the angle facing outwards which the
forearm makes with the arm, and the mouth of
this angle is filled up by the external muscles of
the forearm (especially the brachio-radialis, or
supinator longus), which take their origin from the
external border of the humerus. The external
condyle and the external supra-condyloid ridge can
be felt beneath the skin ; and the former occupies
a depression at the back of the elbow on its outer
side in extension of the forearm.

On the other hand, the internal condyle, supra-
condyloid ridge, and the olecranon process always
show clearly beneath the skin, and the olecranon
forms that projection, commonly called the point
of the elbow J which is so prominent behind during
flexion of the forearm, and which follows the
movements of the forearm, seeming to rise towards
the arm during the extension of the forearm, and
to descend during flexion. The internal condyle
projects as the apex of the angle formed by the
axis of the forearm with that of the arm (Fig. 26,
page 81) ; tliis is a fixed point pl:i e I a little above

76 A A! TIS TIC A NA TOM Y.

the line of the elbow-joint, which is useful in
measurements.

There is one detail which we must not forget
at this stage ; in comparing the length of the fore-
arm with that of the arm the olecranon must be
excluded, as it projects above the lower end of,
the humerus ; on the other hand, the internal
condyle should rather be chosen as a fixed point
from which measurements may be taken.

77

CHAPTER VII.

SKELETON OF THE FOREARM : PRONATION AND

SUPINATION.

The bones of the forearm ; ulna and radius. — The lower extremities of these
bones ; their styloid processes ; triangular fibro-cartilage of the wrist. —
Pronation and supination : change of form and direction of the forearm :
and position of the hand. — Prominences of the wrist (styloid processes) ;
the angle which the axis of the hand makes with that of the forearm.

We have already examined the upper ends of the
bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) in relation to
the elbow-joint. We have still to examine their shafts
and lower extremities; and in this chapter we will
continue their description, and study the movements
of the two bones, and the relation which they bear
to the wrist-joint and the hand. In a state of rest
the two bones lie parallel, the radius externally, and
the ulna internally, separated except at their ex-
tremities by a wide interosseous space.

A superficial glance at the bony structure of the
forearm (Fig. 21, p. 70) suffices to show that the
two bones which compose it offer in many respects
a striking contrast to each other. They differ first
of all in the relative position which they hold in
the forearm. The inner bone is the ulna, which
extends upwards beyond the radius by reason of the
length of the olecranon process. On the other hand,
in the neighbourhood of the wrist, the radius extends
beyond the ulna and descends below it. We should
also note at the outset that the radius, descending
below the ulna, is found to be the only bone of the

78 Artistic Anatomy.

forearm which articulates directly with the hand and
forms the wrist-joint, or radio-carpal articulation.
The lower end of the ulna is separated by a wide
space from the carpus {cuneiforfn bone), which
is filled up in the living subject by the triangular
fibro- cartilage of the wrist-joint. As regards size
also these bones present a contrast ; the ulna is
thick and bulky in its upper part, but becomes
thinner as it descends, and its inferior extremity
is slender (Fig. 21) ; the radius, on the other hand,
is relatively small at its upper end, and increases in
size below, so that its inferior extremity, articulating
with the hand, forms a large bony surface.

We need not enter into minute details regard-
ing the shape of the shafts of the two bones.

They are regularly prismatic in form. At the
upper end of the shaft of the radius, immediately
below the neck, is a tuberosity (13, Fig. 21), directed
forwards and inwards, which gives insertion to the
tendon of the biceps {bicipital tubercle). From this
tuberosity an oblique line passes downwards and
outwards, and terminates upon the middle part of
the external surface of the bone in a rough space
(14, Fig. 21) called the impression for the pronator
radii teres, because it gives insertion to the muscle
of that name.

With regard to the shaft of the ulna, we need
only notice that its posterior border is subcutaneous
in its whole extent, and can be felt beneath the
skin from the elbow to the wrist.

The lower end of the radius is enlarged and
massive. On its inner side it articulates with the
ulna. Externally it is prolonged downwards as the

Skeleton of the Forearm. 79

styloid process, which forms a well-marked promin-
ence at the outer side of the wrist. The inferior
surface is hollowed into a smooth triangular surface
for articulation with two of the bones of the wrist
(scaphoid and semilunar).

The inferior extremity of the ulna is much
smaller. It presents a rounded head (8, Fig. 21),
which articulates externally with the radius, and
below with the triangular ftbro-cartilage of the wrist,
which intervenes between the ulna and the carpus,
and fills the gap between that bone and the cunei-
form bone. The ulna is prolonged on its inner side
and behind into a styloid process which forms the
internal prominence of the wrist. We have already
said that the inferior extremity of the ulna does not
descend as low as the corresponding portion of the
radius ; the triangular fibro-cartilage, which lies below
the ulna, proceeds from the external border of the
inferior extremity of the radius to the base of the
styloid process of the ulna ; the bones of the wrist
articulate with the radius and with this triangular
fibro-cartilage, so that the ulna does not take part
directly in the articulation of the forearm with the
hand (Fig. 2^, page 88). The relation of the ulna to
the wrist-bones is well shown in a radiograph of the
hand, in which the space between the bones at the
inner side of the wrist is clearly' seen (Fig. 25). This
arrangement is of prime importance, as will be seen
later, in the movements of the wrist. On account
of this space between the ulna and the carpus, the
movement of adduction (drawing inwards of the
hand) is much freer and more extensive than
abduction.

8o

A R TIS TIC A NA TOM Y.

Up to the present we have considered the two
bones of the arm as placed parallel side by side, and
separated by a comparatively broad interval, called
the interosseous space (7, Fig. 21). In fact, they are

The Hand and Wrist : From a radiograph taken specially for this work by
Dr. Thurstan Holland, Liverpool.

SO placed, when the arm is hanging beside the body,
in a state of rest, with the palm of the hand directed
forwards (Fig. 26), or placed on a flat surface, palm
upwards ; the hand is then lying on its back, and
this position we call supination (supinus, lying on the
back). But the hand mav be changed in position.

Skeleton of the Forearm.

8i

Right Forearm in Supina-
tion (the radius and radial half
of the hand are shaded by oblique
lines) : the radius is parallel
to the ulna.

Fig. 27,

The Right Forearm in Pro-
nation : the radius (shaded)
crosses the ulna, and the radial
half of hand (shaded) is placed
on the inner side.

turned round so that its posterior surface is directed
forward (Fig. 2^^, or, if the forearm be placed on a
flat surface, the back of the hand is turned upwards.
In this new position, when the hand hes on its

82 Artistic Anatomy,

palmar aspect, we speak of it as being in the
position of pronation {pronus, lying on the belly).

This 'change from supination to pronation is
accomplished by a change in the relations of the
bones of the forearm to one another. Thev cease
to be parallel when the hand is prone, and cross
each other ; but the t^A'o bones do not move similarly
in this action ; one of them, the ulna, practically
remains fixed ; the other, the radius, changes its
position so as to cross it. On examining the points
of contact between the radius and ulna — namely, the
superior and inferior articulations of these two
bones — we see that the superior radio-idnar articu-
lation is formed by the circumference of the head
of the radius received within the cavity {lesser
sigmoid cavity), situated on the outer surface of the
coronoid process of the ulna ; whilst the inferior
radio-ulnar articulation is formed by a sigmoid cavity
situated on the internal surface of the inferior
extremit}^ ot the radius, which articulates with the
circumference of the head of the ulna.

The axis of movement may be represented by a
line drawn through the centres of the upper end
of the radius and the lower end of the ulna. In
the superior radio-ulnar articulation, the head of the
radius revolves on its own axis and turns in the
sigmoid cavity of the ulna ; the superior extremity
of the radius itself does not change its position ;
in the inferior radio-ulnar articulation, on the con-
trary, the radius moves round the head of the ulna,
as a wheel round its axle.

These considerations of articular mechanism
may be best understood by examining a portion

Skeleton of the Forearm. 83

of the skeleton containing the bones of the fore-
arni; which, as is usual in articulated preparations,
are connected together by metallic bands that per-
mit the normal movements. In causing the hand
to pass from supination to pronation, we see that
it is necessary to bring the shaft of the radius
across that of the ulna in such a manner that while
the upper end of the radius still remains on the
outer side, its lower end is entirely altered in
position, and is carried to the inner side of the
ulna (Figs. 26 and 2^]), In accomplishing this move-
ment, we perceive that the hand, which articulates
only with the radius, must follow the movement
of this bone, so that the thumb or radial border
of the hand must change from the outer to the
inner side ; the palm of the hand, which in supina-
tion is directed forwards, is turned backwards in
pronation, and it is this movement of the radius
on the ulna which constitutes the passage from
supination (Fig. 2(i) to pronation (Fig. 2^]^.

The general form of the forearm, irrespective
of the details which we shall explain later, regard-
ing the configuration of the muscles, depends
directly on the position of these bones, and is
changed according as they are parallel or crossed.
When the hand is supinated (Fig. zd), the radius
being then placed parallel to the ulna and separated
from it by a large interosseous space, the form of
the forearm is that of the segment of a limb pre-
senting two borders — an external, or radial, and an
internal, or ulnar — and two surfaces, one anterior,
the other posterior. The forearm, in a word,
is slightly flattened from jfront to back, because the

84 An T/S TIC A NA TOM V.

bones are parallel to each other. But when, front
the position of supination, the hand passes to that
of pronation, the two bones cross each other and
come in contact, and the interosseous space prac-
tically disappears (Fig. 2'/). The radius and ulna,
taken together, form a single mass, which may be
compared to that which two rods assume, placed
at first parallel at a certain distance from each
other, and which afterwards cross and come into
direct contact. Thus in pronation the shape of the
forearm becomes completely changed, especially in its
lower two-thirds. Instead of a segment of a limb
with two surfaces and two borders, it represents a
segment rounded and almost cylindrical in its middle
part ; in complete supination, only the inferior part
(wrist) and the superior part (bend of the elbow)
preserve the form flattened from front to back.

Artists are usually not sufficiently imbued with
these important facts ; they are inclined to believe
that if a figure has been represented with the fore-
arm in a position of supination, and that for some
reason this attitude has been changed to that ot
pronation, it is enough to change the hand and
wrist alone, without altering the model of the fore-
arm in any other detail. On the other hand, the
form of the forearm throughout its entire extent
and particularly in the middle part, undergoes a
change when the hand passes from supination to
pronation, and the reverse ; and this fact will be
still more evident when, in studying the muscles
of the region, we see that their direction is com-
pletely altered, and this also helps to modify the
shape of the limb.

Skeleton of the Forearm. 85

In the movements of pronation and supination,
the forearm changes not only in form, but also
in direction. We have previously seen that when
the radius and ulna are placed parallel one with
^he other (supination), the axis of the forearm
makes with that of the arm an angle opening out-
wards. We may again express this fact by saying
that if in this case we prolong the axis of the
humerus downwards (see the dotted line in Fig. 26),
this axis falls internal to the head (inferior extremity)
of the ulna, and consequently lies well to the inner
side of the radius and interosseous space. But in
pronation, the result is that when the radius
crosses the ulna at its centre, and is placed internal
to it at its lower end, the two crossed bones of
the forearm, taken together, make a continuous
line with the humerus, the angle at the inner side
of the elbow disappears, and the axis of the arm
and that of the forearm are almost in the same
straight line (Fig. 2^]).

In order to make the best use of the various
details of the bony structures which we have been
studying in their application to outward form we
will, before commencing the study of the hand, mark
once more the prominences which occur at the lower
ends of the radius and ulna at the level of the wrist.
Of these two projections, which are to the hand what
the ankle-bones, or malleoli, are to the feet, one is
external, formed by the styloid process of the radius
(16, Fig. 21), the other is internal, and is formed
by the head of the ulna and its styloid process
(9, Fig. 21).

The styloid process of the radius is situated

S6 Artistic Anatomy

much lower than the styloid process of the
ulna.

This position of the bones we may easily verify
upon ourselves, without a skeleton, by clasping with
the thumb and index-finger of one hand the wrist of
the other ; we then perceive that the radius descends
much lower than the ulna (Fig. 21). Hence the ar-
ticular line of the forearm with the hand is obliquely
directed from above downwards and outwards (the
hand being supinated). So that the hand is articu-
lated with the forearm at an angle, due to the
downward prolongation of the lower end of the
radius : a position which, along with the presence
of the articular fibro-cartilage of the wrist, is respon-
sible for the more extensive capacity for adduction
than abduction of the hand at the wrist-joint.

In the extended and supine position of the limb
the junction of the arm and the forearm forms an
angle opening outwards ; that of the forearm and
hand forms an angle opening inwards.

87

CHAPTER VIII.

THE HAND. — PROPORTIONS OF THE UPPER

LIMB

The bony structure of the hand. — The wrist, or carpus ; eight bones in
two rows, superior and inferior. — The radio-carpal articulation, or
wrist-joint. — Carpal joints. — The form of the wrist during fiexion. —
The palm of the hand, or metacarpus ; metacarpal bones ; their
relative lengths (form of the fist). — Carpo-metacarpal articulations ;
the articulation of the thumb. — The fingers, or phalanges. — Articula-
tions of the phalanges ; their movements. — Proportions of the upper
limb : the arms extended (the squai-e figure of the ancients) ; the hand
as a common measure ; the middle finger and the Egyptian Canon of
Charles Blanc. — Brachial index.

The hand is composed of three parts : the wrist, the
palm, and the fingers. The bony structure of the
wrist is formed by the carpus, that of the palm by
the metacarpus {fjuerd, below ; Kapiro^, the wrist) ;
the fingers are formed by small bones called
phalanges (Fig. 25, page 80).

As the carpus is almost completely hidden by
soft parts, fibrous and tendinous, we shall first
proceed to enumerate the bones which compose it,
and show their articulations.

Notwithstanding its small compass, the carpus is
made up of not less than eight bones, which are
placed in two transverse rows, one superior^ or
brachial (next the forearm), the other inferior^ or
fnetacarpal (next the metacarpus).

The bones of the two rows are arranged as
follows, enumerating them in order from without
inwards — that is, from the radial to the ulnar border
of the wrist : — The four bones of the first row are :

88

A R TIS TIC A NA TOM Y.

the scaphoid (S, Fig. 28), named from the cavity on
the inferior surface being compared to a boat {aKd(j)7],
a boat ; etSo?, form) ; the semi-hmar (L, Fig. 2S) ;
the cuneiform {C, Fig. 28) (whose names indicate their
shape) ; and the pisiform (P, Fig. 28), which, small

and rounded, is placed on the
anterior surface of the cunei-
form bone, and articulates
with it alone (Fig. 29). The
four bones of the second
row, still naming them from
without inwards, are (Fig.
28) : trapezium, trapezoid, os
magnum, and unciform bones
{uncus, a hook).

An examination of the
bony structure of the carpus
as a whole shows that the
anterior or palmar surface
presents the form" of a
vertical groove, limited on
the inner side by the forward
projections of the pisiform
and unciform bones, and on
the outer side by the projections of the scaphoid
and trapezium. This groove is formed into a
canal by means of a broad fibrous band (the
anterior annular ligame7it of the wrist), which
passes like a bridge across the wrist between the
prominences just named. Beneath this bridge,
and in the canal thus formed, pass the tendons
of the flexor muscles of the fingers, the fleshy
bellies of which occupy the forearm, while their

riG. 28.

The Bony Structure of the
Wrist (dorsal surface) : r, radius;
— u, ulna; — F, triangular fibro-
cartilage ; — s, scaphoid ; — l,
semi-lunar; — c, cuneiform; — p,
pisiform ; — t, trapezium ; — t,
trapezoid; — m, os magnum; — u,
unciform. — Below the carpus: i,
2,3,4,5, the five metacarpal bones
counting from that of thumb (i).

The Hand. — Proportions of the Upper Limp. 89

tendinous insertions are attached to the phalanges.
This explains the fact that these tendons, seen at
the lower part of the forearm, are not visible super-
ficially during their passage into the palm of the
hand.

The Wrist -Joint, — The radio-carpal joint is
formed by the convex upper surface of the carpus,
constituted by the scaphoid, semi-lunar, and cuneiform
bones, articulating with the lower end of the radius
and the fibro-cartilage of the wrist (which lies below
the ulna). This articulation permits movements of
the hand in four directions : forwards and backwards
(flexion and extension) ; outwards and inwards
(abduction and adduction).

hiter-carpal Joint, — The several carpal bones
glide upon one another : and there is only a limited
movement possible of flexion and extension between
the three named bones of the first row (scaphoid,
semi-lunar, and cuneiform) and the four bones of the
second row ; but lateral movements are very limited
and practically absent.

It is thus obvious that the movements of flexion
and extension of the hand at the wrist-joint are
extensive, and amount almost to a right angle,
both before and behind, the mobility of the radio-
carpal and inter-carpal articulations aiding each
other in these movements ; on the contrary, the
lateral movements of the wrist are more limited,
as they are confined to the radio-carpal articulation,
and are restricted on the outer side (abduction) by the
downward projection of the lower end of the radius.
Adduction is a much more powerful movement,
rendered freer by the presence of the triangular

90

A R TIS TIC A NA TOM Y,

fibro-cartilage of the wrist, and the separation ot
the uhia and the cuneiform bones. It should also
be noted that in flexion of the hand, when it
forms a right angle with the forearm, the posterior

surface of the wrist does not
present an abrupt curve, but
rather a rounded form ; the
convexity being made up of
two series of articulations,
the radio-carpal and the
inter-carpal articulations.

The metacarpus (Fig. 29),
or skeleton of the palm of
the hand, is composed of five
slender, long bones — the five
metacarpal bones — separated
from each other by inter-
osseous spaces. Each meta-
carpal bone, like the other
long bones, is composed of a
shaft and two extremities.
The shaft is more or less
prismatic and triangular ; the
upper or carpal extremity is
cuboid, or wedge-shaped ;
the lower or digital end is
rounded to articulate with
the first bone of the finger. The five bones are
distinguished by the names, first, second, third,
fourth, and fifth metacarpal, counting from the
thumb to the little finger; or, again, by the name
of the finger to which they correspond (as the
metacarpal bone of the thumb, index finger, etc.).

Fig. 29.

Bony Structure of Hand (an-
terior or palm surface). — i, 2, 3,
and 4, the four bones of superior
row of carpus: — 5, 7, 8, and 9,
the four bones of inferior row ; —
\o, 10, the five metacarpal bones ;
— II, II, the first phalanges ; — 12,
12, the second phalanges ; — 13, 13,
the third phalanges; — 14 and 15,
the two phalanges of the thumb.

The Hand. — Proportions of the Upper Limb. 91

The first metacarpal bonC; or that of the thumb,
is the shortest, and is remarkable for character-
istics to which reference will be made later ; the
second, or metacarpal bone of the index finger,
and the third, or that ot the middle finger, are
the longest. The third is generally longer than the
second, so that a line passing through the heads of
the series of metacarpal bones describes a curve
with its convexity downwards, of which the most
prominent part corresponds to the head of the third
metacarpal bone. When the hand is firmly closed,
and the fingers bent in the palm, it is the head of
the third metacarpal bone which forms the most
prominent part of the fist.

The metacarpal bones articulate with the carpus
by their upper extremities, or bases. In these
articulations a very different arrangement is found
for the first metacarpal bone when compared with
that of the other four.

The articulation of the metacarpal bone of the
thumb is formed by a saddle-shaped facet on the
trapezium, concave from side to side, and convex
from before backwards, and a corresponding facet
at the base of the first metacarpal bone. It results,
then, that as the rider can move himself on his
saddle forwards and backwards, and to either
side, so the metacarpal bone of the thumb is
equally movable in all directions, and can accom-
plish the movement of circumduction, by which
the extremity of the thumb describes a circle.
This mobility permits the thumb to be separated
from the other fingers, or to be drawn across the
hand, or to touch the tips of the other fingers.

92 Artistic Anatomy

This last is called the movement of opposition of
the thumb, and it is owing to this property that
the thumb possesses of opposing itself to the
fingers that the hand of man forms such a won-
derful organ for prehension and for performing
the most delicate and refined movements. The
articulation of the trapezium and metacarpal bone,
which is the source of these movements, thus
deserves particular mention. The articular surfaces
of the two bones are attached to each other by
an articular capsule sufficiently loose to allow
all the movements of which the first metacarpal bone
is capable.

On the other hand, the articulations of the
metacarpal bones of the four other fingers do not
present any such mobility. In fact, whilst the
base of the first metacarpal bone is free, without
being connected with that of the second, the bases
of the other metacarpal bones are in contact with
each other by their lateral surfaces, and are united
by dorsal, palmar, and interosseous ligaments.
Again, the transverse line of union between the
second row of the carpus and the base of these
metacarpal bones (carpo-metacarpal line) is irregular,
the carpus and metacarpus being dovetailed into
each other, especially at the level of the second
and third metacarpals, by reason of the projection
upwards of the second metacarpal bone, and the
projection downwards of the os magnum (Fig. 29).
The carpus and the four last metacarpal bones
therefore form a series of joints, of which the
parts are only slightly movable one on the other,
giving a certain elasticity to the whole. The

The Hand. — Proportions of the Upper Limb. 93

effects of pressure or sudden shock are avoided by
the presence of numerous parts united in such a
manner as to ghde one on the other, at the same
time not presenting any independent mobihty.

The fingers are formed of a series of slender bones
placed end to end, and termed phalanges. Each
finger has three phalanges, except the thumb, which
has only two. We distinguish the rows of phalanges
by the names of the first, second, or third, counting
from the base to the free extremity of the fingers ;
and we give the name of ungual phalanx to the last
because it supports the nail. These phalanges, like
the other long bones, are made up of a shaft and
two extremities. The shaft is semi-cylindrical in
shape, rounded behind and flattened in front, where
the flexor tendons of the fingers are lodged. The
extremities present characters which will be pointed
out when the articulations of the fingers are
studied.

The articulations of each finger are : the meta-
carpo-phalangeal articulation, the articulation of the
first with the second, and the articulation of the
second with the third phalanges (inter-phalangeal
articulations).

Each fuetacarpo-phalangeal articulation is formed
by the globular head of the metacarpal bone being
received into a glenoid cavity in the base of the
first phalanx. Such an adaptation of articular sur-
faces will permit every kind of movement, and it
is easy to understand that each finger can be bent
on the metacarpus, straightened, and also inclined to
either side (abduction and adduction — the act of
separating and bringing together the fingers) ; but

94 Artistic Anatomy.

the articular capsule or fibrous band which surrounds
each metacarpo-phalangeal joint fixes an exact limit
to these movements. Flexion is a much more power-
ful movement than extension, because the capsules
of the joints are deficient behind, their places being
taken by a membranous expansion of the extensor
tendons which passes over the backs of the joints.
Thus extension cannot usually be prolonged further
than that position in w^hich the axis of the fingers
forms a straight line with that of the metacarpal
bones, for just then the anterior portion of the
capsule is put on the stretch, and as this part is
fibrous, thick, and resisting, it prevents any increase
of extension. When the anterior ligament is thinner
and more relaxed, as sometimes in the female hand,
the fingers can be straightened beyond the straight
line, and form an obtuse angle with the metacarpus.
On the other hand, this capsule is strengthened on
either side by a lateral ligament, which, being inserted
at the posterior part of the head of the metacarpal
bone, is put on the stretch when the act of flexion
is produced, and when this act of flexion arrives
at a right angle, the lateral ligaments do not permit
it to be carried any farther. It is easy to prove this
upon ourselves, as we cannot flex the first phalanx
on the metacarpus beyond this point, and we cannot,
in any case, bring the anterior surface of the first
phalanx of a finger in contact with the palm of the
hand, but only the second and third phalanges.

hiter-phalangeal Articulations, — The articula-
tions of the phalanges that is, those of the first
with the second, and those of the second with the
third — are constructed on a different plan from the

The Hand. — Proportions of the Upper Limb. 95

metacarpo-phalangeal articulations. Instead of a
head received into a glenoid cavity, we find here,
at the inferior extremity of the first and second
phalanges, a surface formed like a pulley, or trochlea,
with two lateral lips separated by a groove or hollow
(Fig. 29) ; and, on the other hand, on the superior
extremity of the second and third we find two
cavities corresponding to the lips of the pulley,
separated by a median projection which corresponds
to the groove. Therefore, given a single phalanx,
it will be easy to say whether it is a first, second,
or third phalanx, as the first phalanx has at its upper
end a single articular cavity, while the second and
third have two placed side by side ; and again, the
third, or ungual, phalanx may be distinguished at
the first glance from the second by the shape of
its free extremity, w^hich is expanded in front into
a rough surface shaped like an arrow-head for the
support, not of the nail, but of the pulp of the
finger. The inter-phalangeal joints reproduce on a
smaller scale the pulley, or trochlea, and joint of the
elbow, and present an analogous mechanism per-
mitting only the movements of flexion and extension.
In fact, as each of us may prove upon his own hand,
while the fingers may be moved from side to side at
their metacarpo-phalangeal articulations, the several
phalanges can only be flexed and extended at the
inter-phalangeal joints ; in other words, while the
finger enjoys great freedom of movement at its
base, it only possesses that of flexion and extension
in its component parts. Here again, and for the
same reason, flexion is the more powerful movement.
The movement of extension of the phalanges is

g6 Ar tis tic A na tom y.

limited, because the anterior portion of the articular
capsule put on the stretch by the movement is stout
and strong, but we find a great variety in different
subjects, and with some, such mobility that the ter-
minal phalanges can be bent backwards. Flexion
is limited only by the contact of the soft parts on
the anterior surface of a phalanx.

The Proportions of the Upper Limb. — Having
examined the skeleton of the upper limb in relation
to form and movement, it is necessary next to study
its proportions — namely, to inquire, on the one hand,
what comparison the length of the limb bears to
the height, and, on the other, to compare the length
of the different segments of the limb with each
other.

The comparison between the upper limbs and
the height may be expressed in two ways : first,
by examining the two arms outstretched in the
horizontal position ; the distance which then
separates the extremity of one hand from that of
the other is termed the span of the tipper Umhs,
and this transverse measure includes not only the
length of the arms, but also the breadth of the
shoulders ; secondly, by examining the upper limb
hanging vertically beside the body, and noting to
what level on the lower limb the extremity of the
hand (nail of the middle finger) reaches.

The relation of the span of the upper limbs to
the height has been expressed long since by the
formula known as the square figure of the ancients
(Fig. 30). If we draw two horizontal lines, one at
the soles of the feet (c, d)^ the other at the summit
of the head (a, ^), and two vertical lines at right

The Hand. — Proportions of the Upper Limb. 97

angles to the extremities of the two arms horizon-
tally outstretched^ these four lines form by their
junction a perfect square ; in other words, the man
having the arms horizontal is enclosed within a
square. This shows that the span of the arms is
equal to the height.

This statement is correct for a man of the
Caucasian race of the middle height, but it is not
so for the yellow and
black races, in whom
the span of the arm
is greater than the
height. If from man
we pass on to the
anthropoid apes (chim-
panzee, gorilla, &c.),
we find that the span
of the arms in these
becomes more and
more extended as com-
pared with the height.
Thus, in the gorilla, the height being 5 ft. 7 J in.,
the span becomes 8 ft. 9i in. ; and in the chim-
panzee, to a height of 5 ft. 5i in. the corresponding
span is 6 ft. 6 in.

Again, when we examine the upper limbs hang-
ing freely beside the body, we find that in the
European of average height the extremity of the
middle finger corresponds in general to the middle
of the thigh ; in subjects of short stature this
extremity of the hand descends a little lower than
the middle, and, on the other hand, in very tall
men it ends at a higher level. In the yellow and

H

Fig. 30.
Figure in a square, ancient method.

98 Artistic Anatomy.

black races the extremity of the hand descends
much lower than the middle of the thigh ; and in
the anthropoid apes we find that, in the chim-
panzee, the extremity of the hand descends below
the knee ; in the gorilla it corresponds to the
middle of the leg ; and, finally, in the orang-outang,
and in the gibbon, it reaches almost to the ankle.

If we seek among the various portions of the
upper limb a part which would answer as a
common measure between them, we cannot find
anything satisfactory in this respect. The length
of the hand, which would naturally seem to be
indicated as a measure, is not contained an even
number of times in the length of the bones of the
shoulder, arm, or forearm. If, however, we take
from the hand the length of the third phalanx of
the middle finger, we have a measure equal to
that of the vertebral border of the shoulder-blade,
or of the clavicle. Under those conditions we may
say that the length of the humerus is equal to
twice that of the hand, and that of the forearm
equal to one and a half the length of the hand ;
but these proportions are so variable that they
cannot be insisted on. We should attach more
importance to the rule that takes the hand as a
common measure of the entire body in regard to
height, taking the height as being equal to ten
hands. This is a proportion which often answers
in reality, but which presents too many exceptions
to be laid down as a law.

We may here state the fact once for all, that
there is not an absolute rule for the anatomist, or
system of proportions applicable to every class

The Hand. — Proportions of the Upper Limb. 99

ot subject; to those of small as well as those of
large stature. If, on the contrary, an ideal pro-
portion is adopted, in which a human figure has
been altered, so as to correspond to the abstract
conception of beauty, we say that this question
of proportion belongs no longer
to the domain of anatomy or
observation, but that here we
rather touch aesthetic doctrines ;
it is for this reason that we have
limited ourselves, when putting
forward various ideas of propor-
tion, to indicating, within such
limits as direct observation per-
mits, whether a part of a limb
might serve as a common measure
for this limb or for the total
length of the body.

The Egyptian canon as demon-
strated by Charles Blanc, which
has a certain historical interest,
is that the length of the fuiddle
finger, taken as a common
measure, should be contained nineteen times in the
length of the body. In fact, the ^^ Selection of
Funeral Monuments" by Lepsius (Leipzig, .1852)
contains the drawing of a very curious Egyptian
figure, divided by transverse lines into nineteen parts
(not including the head-dress). Now as severa?
passages in different ancient authors seem to indicate
that the Egyptian sculptors have taken the finger as
the unit of the system, Charles Blanc very ingeniously
remarks this fact, that in the figure in question, one

Fig. 31.
The Egyptian Canon.

100 Artistic Anatomy.

of the horizontal hnes, the eighth beginning at the
soles of the feet, passes exactly at the base of the
middle finger in the right hand (closed holding a
key), while the seventh touches the extremity of the
middle finger of the extended left hand. It seems to
him, then, very probable that the distribution of
these horizontal lines indicates a system of measuring
the figure, and that the space between the seventh
and the eighth line measures the length of the middle
finger, which thus becomes the standard of this
system of proportion. According to the Egyptian
rule, the length of the middle finger will be found
nineteen times in that of the height (Fig. 31) ; it may
be that this rule was adopted by the Greek artists,
and Charles Blanc does not hesitate to think that
Polycletus, who has composed a Treatise on Propor-
tions, with a model in marble know^n by the name of
Doryphorus, used no other system but the Egyptian ;
there has been always found in a number' of antique
figures this same proportion of nineteen times the
middle finger to the height of the body, and in the
Achilles, for example, the total height does not
exceed by more than aVth of an inch the length of
the middle finger multiplied by nineteen.

Brachial Index. — An interesting proportion to
note is that between the arm and forearm, especially
as it has been with anthropologists the subject of
important researches, and will familiarise us with the
term index, which we must frequently make use of,
especially when comparing the transverse and antero-
posterior diameters of the cranium. We give, in
anthropology, the name index to the number which
expresses the proportion of one dimension to some

V

The Hand. — Proportions of the Upper Limb, ioi

other, this last being represented by loo. Supposing,
in fact, that we compare one length, A, equal to one
metre, with another length, B, equal to two metres,
in this case, the first length being half that of the
second, we speak of the index found as 50 (because
50 is the half of 100, and we suppose the second
length to be equal to 100). Now the forearm is
shorter than the arm ; it represents about three-
fourths of it ; if, then, we take the number 100 to
represent the length of the humerus, the number 75,
which is three-fourths of 100, would represent the
length of the forearm ; and then in denoting by the
brachial index the proportion of the length (always
shorter) of the forearm with that of the arm
(always longer) we simply say that the brachial index
is represented by 75.

This method of notation, which reduces any
numerical proportion to the decimal system, is very
valuable, as it permits us to follow without difficulty
the degree in which a proportion varies according to
the race or species.

Thus we come to speak of the brachial index
(proportion of the forearm to the arm) as 75. We
have chosen this particular number in order to make
the example easy ; in reality, in adult European
subjects this index is only 74 — that is to say, that the
forearm is to the arm as 74 is to 100. If we
measure the same parts in the adult negro, and
reduce to the decimal proportion the numbers
obtained, we find the brachial index here is 79 — 01
that the forearm is to the arm as 79 to 100. In the
negTO, then, the forearm is longer compared with
the arm, as 79 is a greater part of 100 than 74.

102 Artistic Anatomy,

Finally, if we pass on from the human species to the
anthropoid apes, we see that the brachial index
comes to be 80, and even 100 — that is to say, that
the length of the forearm becomes equal to that of
the arm ; and we know, therefore, that the great
length of the upper limbs in the anthropoids (page
86) is principally owing to the greater length
of the forearm. But the most interesting fact is
that in the human race the brachial index is not the
same at different ages — thus, in the European infant
at birth this index is 80 ; before the end of the first
year it is only "j^j^ and by degrees during childhood
it descends until it arrives at 74 in the adult. This
clearly shows that the humerus, during the growth of
the body, lengthens in proportion more than the
bones of the forearm ; so that they, which were
at first to the humerus as 80 is to 100, come
gradually to be as 77 to 100, and finally as
75 or 74 to 100. If we were to glance at com-
parative osteology we should see that, in such
animals as the lion or the horse, the forearm
becomes longer in proportion to the humerus, so
as to equal, and afterwards to surpass, the length of
that bone.

103

CHAPTER IX.

THE PELVIS.

The bony structure of the hips. — The pelvis ; sacrtmi (five vertebra;
welded together) ; coccyx (the caudal appendage in man and the
monkeys resembling man) ; the innominate hones (iiium, pubis,
ischium) ; the cotyloid cavity ; the acetabulum and its notch. — The
articulations of the pelvis, sacro-iliac and pubic ; sacro-iiiac ligaments ;
ilio-pubic, or Poupart's ligament (fold of the groin) ; ligaments of
the hip-bones. — The pelvis as a whole. — Comparison of the pelvis in
the male and female.

The pelvis is formed by the union of the two hip-
bones, one on either side, with the vertebral column,
so as to form the pelvic cavity or basin, which is
bounded behind by the lower portion of the vertebral
column, sacrum and coccyx, laterally by the hip-
bones, and in front by the symphysis pubis, the
antero-inferior articulation of the two hip-bones
together. It completes the trunk and abdomen in
their lower parts, and serves to articulate with the
thigh-bones (femora) externally. There is a great
contrast between the shoulder girdle and the pelvic
girdle. The former is freely movable, and has only
a slight attachment by the sterno-clavicular joint
to the axial skeleton : the latter is immobile, and
is firmly adherent to the vertebral column (sacrum)
by means of the sacro-iliac joint and powerful
accessory ligaments.

The OS sacrufn (Figs. 5, 8, 32, 35, 38),
so called because it was the part of the trunk
offered in sacrifice by the ancients to their gods,
is formed of five vertebrae (sacral vertebrae) fused

I04

A R TIS TIC A NA TOMY.

together by osseous union, the separate portions of
which are easily seen on careful examination. Taken
as a whole it forms a pyramid, the base of which
(2, Fig. 35) is turned upwards and forwards,

corresponding to the
body of the first
sacral vertebra. This
sacral pyramid, being
directed obliquely
from above down-
wards and backwards
(Figs. 8, 9), presents a
surface called antero-
inferior, or rather in-
ferior, on which we
recognise five united
vertebral bodies (Fig.
5, page 28); a pos-
tero-superior surface
— better called
superior — on which
we recognise the rudi-
mentary spinous processes (Fig. 9, page 38) and
the laminae of these same five vertebrae, these
portions being all united together ; and, finally,
the lateral surfaces, expanded above to form the
auricular surface for articulation with a similar
surface on the hio-bone. This surface extends over
the sides of the first three sacral vertebrae ; and
behind it are rough excavations for the attachment
of the powerful posterior sacro-iliac ligaments.

The coccyx (21, Fig. 5), placed below the sacrum,
is a rudimentary caudal appendage, but instead of

Fig. 32.
Section of the Pelvis.

The Pel vis.

105

being, as in the greater number of mammals, free
and movable, it is found in man curved towards
the interior of the pelvis, whose inferior outlet it
contributes to close. Its borders give attachment
to powerful sacro-sciatic ligaments, which help to
fill up the space between the vertebral column and
the hip-bone on each si'de.

The coccyx is formed
of a series of four vertebra3,
welded one with the other,
and so diminished in size
that each of them is re-
duced to a small osseous
nodule, representing a rudi-
mentary vertebral body.

The hip-bones (ossa
i7i?iomi?iatd) are two in
number, one on each side,
articulating behind with

the sacrum, and

uniting

Fig. 33

The Hip-Bone of an Infant: its
three primitive pieces:— i, ilium; —
2, its superior border; — 5, 6, ischium,
its acetabular part (in 7) ; — 8, pubis,
its acetabular part (11).

with each other in front
(Figs. 35, 38) to form the
symphysis pubis. In order
to understand the arrange-
ment of the parts of which a hip-bone consists it is
necessary to notice that this bone is made up origin-
ally, in an infant, of three distinct parts, which are
afterwards joined together as age advances ; of these
parts, the superior is called the iliti?n ; the two
others are inferior ; that placed in front is called the
pithis, and that behind, the ischiicfu (Fig. 33). The
junction of the three parts is effected at the central
portion of the bone, at the bottom of the great

io6 Artistic Anatomy,

articular cavity of the hip-joint (acetabulum). The
names of almost every part of the hip-bone are
derived from its three constituent portions — namely,
the ilium, pubis, and ischium.

Examining first the external surface of the bone,
we notice that its. upper part is expanded into a large
area called the dorsum ilii (5, Fig. 34), which is
crossed by three curved lines limiting the attachments
of the gluteal muscles (4 and 5, Fig. 34). Below
this area the bone is narrowed and presents a cir-
cular cavity (13 and 14, Fig. 34), broad and deep,
which has received the name of the acetabulum (a
vinegar-cup) ; its use is to form the articular socket
of the hip-joint for the reception of the head of
the femur. The margin of this cavity is prominent
throughout its entire extent, except below, where it
is deficient, and gives rise to the 7wtch of the acetab-
ulum ; this notch is a valuable starting-point to settle
the natural position either of the iliac bone or of the
entire pelvis (Fig. 34). If, in fact, this bone of the
pelvis is supposed to belong to a figure in the upright
position, the acetabular notch should be directed
downwards, as shown in Fig. 34. Below the ace-
tabulum the innominate bone is pierced by a large
hole, called the obturator or thyroid foramen (22,
Fig. 34), bounded by the following parts : behind, by
the ischiimi (20, Fig. 34) ; in front and above, by
the horizontal ra^nus of the pubis (18) ; below, by
a bony plate formed by a prolongation of the pubis
(19) proceeding to join a corresponding prolongation
of the ischium. These united bars of bone are called
the descending rafnus of the pubis and the ascending
ramus of the ischitim, and they unite to form with

The Pel vis.

107

those of the opposite side the pithic arch of the
completed pelvis. The internal surface of the in-
nominate bone is divided into upper and lower parts

Fig. 34.

Right Hip-Bone (external surface). — i, i, iliac crest; — 2, anterior superior
iliac spine ; — 3, posterior superior iliac spine ; — 4, superior curved line ; — 5,
inferior curved line; — 7, anterior inferior iliac spine; — 11, ischial spine; — 121
great sciatic notch ; — 13, acetabulum ; and 14, its pit (fovea) ; — 16, its great notch,
directed downwards ; — 17, spine of pubis ; — 18, horizontal ramus of pubis ; — 19,
body and descending ramus of pubis; — 20, 20, tuberosity of ischium; — 22,
obturator foramen.

by a diagonal line — the ilio-pectineal line — which sepa-
rates the iliac portion of the bone from the part formed
by the ischium and pubis, and also serves to separate
in the complete pelvis the upper abdominal part
{false pelvis) from the cavity of the true pelvis below.
Above this line is the internal expanded surface of

io8

A R TIS TIC A NA TOM Y.

the ilium known as the iliac fossa (lo, Fig. 35). At
its posterior end is the auricular surface of the ihum,
for articulation with the sacrum. Below it are, first,
a flat surface corresponding to the floor of the ace-
tabulum, and; lower still, the obturator foramen,
bounded as we have already described. The borders
of the hip-bone are distinguished (Fig. 34) as superior,

anterior, pos-
V z'^"'*''''^^^'^ terior, and in-

/^p\ M tenor. ihQ su-

perior border,
called the crest
of the iliiifn (i,
Fig. 34), is thick
and curved like
an italic /; it
is this which
marks on the
living model the
outline of the
hip — namely,
the limit be-
t w e e n the
lateral part of the abdomen and the lateral
part of the pelvis. It ends in front in the
anterior superior spine (2, Fig. 34), and behind
in the posterior superior spine of the ilium. The
anterior border begins at the anterior superior iliac
spine, and presents in succession, from above down-
wards, a notch, then a prominence called the a7ite-
rior inferior spine of the ilium (7, Fig. 34), below
which is a groove giving passage to the psoas muscle
(see later) bounded on its inner side by the ilio-

FiG. 35.

Pelvis of the Male. — i, i, iliac crests ; — 2,
sacrum ; — 3, symphysis pubis ;— 5, 5, acetabula ; — 6, 6
rami of pubes and ischia; — 7, 7, obturator foramina;
— 10, 10, iliac fossa.

The Pelvis. 109

pectineal eminence ; finally, this border is continuous
with the horizontal ramus of the pubis, and ends
internally in the spine and crest of the pubis
(17, Fig. 34). The posterior border of the bone is
similarly marked by projections and notches. It is
limited above by the posterior superior spi7ie of the
ilium (3, Fig. 34), and below by the tuberosity
of the ischium ; and between these are two smaller
projections — the posterior inferior spine of the ilium
above, and the spine of the ischium below. The
ischial spine serves to divide the border into two
unequal notches, of which the superior, the larger, is
called the great sciatic notch (12, Fig. 34), and the
inferior, the smaller, the lesser sciatic notch. Finally,
the ijiferior border is formed by the rami of the
pubis and ischium. We will finish the description of
this bone by describing its four angles : the antero-
superior (2, Fig. 34) is formed by the anterior superior
iliac spine ; the antero-inferior (17, Fig. 34) by the
body of the pubis, which here presents a rough oval
surface of considerable extent which articulates with
the pubis of the opposite side to form the symphy-
sis pubis ; the postero-inferior angle (20, Fig. 34) is
formed by the tuberosity of the ischium ; and finally,
the supero-posterior, thick and flattened, presents on
its outer side the posterior iliac spines, and on its
inner side the large rough auricular surface, for
articulation with the sacrum.

In order to construct the pelvis, the two hip-
bones are joined together (at the symphysis pubis),
and also join the sacrum (sacro-iliac synarthrosis)
by articulations which have nothing in common
with those which we have already studied in the

1 10 A J? TisTic Ana tomy.

limbs — for example, the shoulder or elbow. In
those articulations of the limbs the bones were in
contact by smooth surfaces, which glided one upon
the other without anything interposed between
them ; such articulations are characterised by their
mobility. On the other hand, the sacrum is united
on each side to the hip-bones, and the hip-bones
themselves articulate in front with each other by
rough surfaces, betvv^een which are placed plates,
more or less thick, of fibro-cartilage (similar to the
intervertebral discs), which, in consequence, do
not allow them to glide one on the other, but
closely join them together. These articulations,
which bear the name of syftarthroses, or symphyses
(auv, together; (pvo/juac, to weld), are remarkable not
for mobility, but for rigidity. They are character-
ised by the possession, between the articulating
bones, of plates of fibro-cartilage, which act as
tough but elastic buffers. Behind, the two sacro-
iliac synarthroses support the sacrum, which is
firmly wedged in between the two bones of the
hip, and is slung between them, while the strong
ligaments placed above the joint permit the sacrum
to support the weight transmitted to it by the
vertebral column. In front and below, the sy^n-
physis pubis (3, Fig. 35), besides having fibro-
cartilage placed between the bones and adherent
to them, is also strengthened by fibrous bands
passing superficially from one bone to the other.

These articulations weld the component parts
of the pelvis (the sacrum, with the two hip-bones)
into a complete basin ; but, at the same time,
owing to the elasticity of these joints, the pelvis

Thr Pel vis. i i i

can resist without injury the shocks which are
transmitted to it by the vertebral column and the
lower limbs. The sacro-ihac and pubic fibro-
cartilages break and check the shock which is pro-
duced— when, for example, we jump from a height
and alight on the soles of the feet.

Besides the sacro-iliac joint and the articulation
of the symphysis pubis, the pelvis also possesses
other ligaments accessory or special to the hip-
bone. The accessory ligaments are those which
strengthen the sacro-iliac joint. Above the articu-
lation are the ilio-lu?nbar ligament, passing from the
transverse process of the last lumbar vertebra to
the iliac crest at its posterior end, and the sacro-
vertebral ligament, passing from the same trans-
verse process to the lateral mass of the sacrum.
Below the joint are the two sacro-sciatic ligaments,
which, arising together from the side of the sacrum
and coccyx in the form of a broad fibrous band,
proceed outwards, and, diverging, are attached,
one — the great sacro-sciatic ligament — to the tuber-
osit}^ of the ischium, the other — the lesser sacro-
sciatic ligavient — to the spine of the ischium.
These ligaments convert the sacro-sciatic notches
into foramina, through which important muscles
pass ; and, but for this fact, these ligaments would
not need mention here, as they do not appear
superficially, being covered by the mass of the
gluteal muscles. The special ligaments of the hip-
bone are the triangular ligament, which is a mem-
brane partly filling up the pubic arch ; the obturator
membrane, which almost completely fills the obtura-
tor foramen ; and Poupari s ligament (really derived

112 Artistic Anatomy.

from the aponeurosis of the external oblique muscle
of the abdomen, which stretches between the
anterior superior spine of the ilium and the spine
of the pubis). It is immediately subcutaneous, and
corresponds to the fold of the groin. The sub-
cutaneous fascia is attached to the entire length
of the ligament, and so creates a depression ex-
tending from the spine of the ilium to the pubis.
This fold of the groin marks the limit between
the skin of the abdomen and that of the thigh.
As the deep fascial envelope of the thigh is
attached to Poupart's ligament in its whole length,
it pulls on the ligament so as to make it convex
downwards in the extended position of the lower limb.
The whole pelvis is expanded above and narrower
below, and the lower part of it is, for the most part,
concealed from view in the living model. The lower
limbs are attached on each side in such a manner
that they approach each other at the lower part of
the pelvis, so as to leave between them only a narrow
interval — the perineum^ which corresponds to the
genital organs and the parts between the folds of the
buttocks. But the upper outline of the pelvis is
clearly marked throughout the whole of its extent :
on each side the iliac crests, on the superior borders
of the hip-bones, form a slightly undulating line, the
middle portion of which is most elevated, while its
anterior extremity inclines abruptly downwards to
terminate at the anterior superior spine of the crest
of the ilium, clearly seen in the model when the
skin is not loaded with fat ; in front, the pehis
presents an extensive curved outline with its con-
cavity upwards, the central parts corresponding to

The Pel vis. 113

the symphysis pubis, and the lateral parts formed
by Poupart's hgament on each side. This anterior
outhne of the pelvis forms the lower limit of the
abdominal wall. This helps to give the anterior ab-
dominal wall the form of a shield rounded at both
upper and lower ends, a form which the ancients seem
to have exaggerated in adopting for the epigastric pit

Fig. 36. Fig. 37.

Diagrams showing that the pelvis of the male (A) represents a long segment
a, b, c, d) of a short cone {a, b, x), while the pelvis of the female (B) represents
a short segment (a, b, c, d) of a long cone (a, b, x).

a configirration rounded instead of oval, which is the
shape it presents in the skeleton. We have pre-
viously (page 54) shown how, in numerous cases,
the form adopted by the ancient sculptors is
sufficiently justifiable.

After having studied the pelvis with regard to its
mtchanism and its influence on external form, we
ought now to examine it with regard to its propor-
tions— namely, its transverse dimensions ; but as the
prominence of the hips is formed not only by the
superior border of the iliac bones, but also by the great
trochanters of the femur, this examination cannot
I

1 14

A R TIS TIC A NA TOM Y.

be completed without reference to the relation of
the bones of the thigh to the pelvis. For the
moment, therefore, we must confine ourselves to
the study of the proportions of the pelvis in the male
and in the female skeleton.

Generally speaking, the pelvis of the female is
broader and shorter than that of the male ; in the
male (Fig. 35) the superior transverse diameter,
which is a line that passes through the most

prominent por-
tion of the crest
of the ihum of
one side to the
corresponding
part of the
othei, measures
from 10 to 12
inches (on the
average i i
inches) ; whilst
in the female
this line measures from 10 J to 13! inches (on the
average 12 inches). On the contrary, the height
of the pelvis in man is about 8 inches, whilst it is
not more than j\ inches in the female. Again,
comparing (Figs. 35 and 38) a male with a female
pelvis, we see that the first is narrow, the second
comparatively broad between the ischial tuberosities.
If we suppose a line drawn at a tangent to the
sides of the pelvis, we see that these lines must be
prolonged downwards lor a considerable distance in
order to meet in the female pelvis, but that in the
male pelvis they join at a shorter distance from the

Fig. 38,
Pelvis of the female.

The Pel vis. 115

pelvic outlet. In order to reduce these facts to a
simple formula we may say, therefore, that the pelvis
of a male represents a long segment of a short cone ^
while that of the female represents a short segment of
a long cone. The student is referred to Figs. 36 and
37, which show this arrangement by means of a
simple diagram.

The particular details of shape which distinguish
the pelvis in the two sexes are the following : — The
thickness of the walls : in the male the bones of
the pelvis are stronger, the iliac crests are thicker,
more curved, and less expanded, and the different
prominences for the insertions of muscles are better
marked. The pubic arch, limited above by the
symphysis, and on each side by the descending rami
of the pubis, is very broad, and has everted edges in
the female, in whom it assumes the form of an
elliptical arch, while in the male (compare Fig. 35
and Fig. 38 at 3, 6, 6) this same arch is narrow and
raised, and takes the form of a pointed arch. For
the same reason the tuberosities of the ischium are
wider apart in the female than in the male. The
spine of the ischium in the female is turned back-
wards, and appears less obviously in the pelvic
cavity. The obturator foramina are wide and
triangular in the female, while they are narrow
and oval in the pelvis of the male. The sacrum
is relatively shorter and broader in the female than
in the male.

Ii6

CHAPTER X.

THE THIGH, FEMUR, AND HIP-JOINT.

The femur : its superior extremity : neck^ head, and trochanters. — Hip-
joint, or coxo-femoral articulation; movements of the joint; limits
oP these movements ; limits of extension (ilio-femoral ligament) ;
adduction (ligamentum teres) ; the influence of atmospheric pressure
(experiments of the brothers Weber). — The transverse dimensions of
the hips and shoulder in the male and female ; the various formulae
(ovoid of the ancients, ovoid and elliptical of Salvage) ; the
correct formula ; the inter-humeral and inter-trochanteric diameters ;
the inter-acromial and inter-iliac diameters. — The external form of
the region of the hips and great trochanter in particular ; the osseous
prominences brought into relief on the surface as flat and depressed
surfaces.

The femur (Figs. 39 and 43), or bone of the thigh,
is one of the long bones. It is the largest bone in
the skeleton, and consists, like all the long bones, of
a shaft and two extremities (Fig. 39). In this
chapter we have to consider its upper end, and its
articulation with the hip-bone.

The upper extremity of the femur is composed of
a heady a neck^ and of two tuberosities (the great
and small trochanters) placed at the junction of
the neck with the body of the bone. The head of
the femur (5, Fig. 43) is regularly rounded, and forms
three-fourths of a sphere. Its spherical surface,
turned inwards, upwards, and forwards, is smooth
and covered with cartilage, except at a pit (6, Fig. 43)
seen a little below and behind its centre, which gives
attachment to the ligameiitum teres — a strong fibrous
band which connects the femur to the acetabulum.

The Thigh, Femur, and Hip-joint, i i 7

The neck of the femur (7, Fig. 43), connecting the
head with the shaft, is directed downwards and out-
wards in the form of a cyHnder,
flattened a httle from front to
back, to become attached to the
upper extremity of the shaft of
the femur at an obtuse angle,
looking downwards and inwards
(Fig. 39). This angle which the
axis of the neck makes with that
of the body varies in different in-
dividuals. In the adult male it is
about 135 degrees ; in the female
it is less open — that is, it ap-
proaches nearer to a right angle.
This helps to increase the trans-
verse diameter of the hips in the
female. Again, in both sexes this
angle approaches gradually to a
right angle with the advance of
age — a change that assists in
shortening the total height in the
aged. At the junction of the neck
of the femur with the body of the
bone are the two tuberosities, or
trochanters — one situated above
and to the outer side, called the
great trochanter (3, Fig. 39 ; and
8, Fig. 43) ; the other situated
below and to the inner side, at
the junction of the neck and the
shaft, called the lesser trochanter (10, Fig. 43). The
great trochanter is of large size, is quadrilateral in

wmm

Fig. 39.

Vertical Sectionof
Femur. — i, i, 2 2, the
body of the bone with
the medullary canal
hollowed out; — 3, the
great trochanter,
whence the neck is
given off, terminating in
the head ; — 4, inferior
extremity of the bone.

ii8 Artistic Anatomy.

shape, and projects beyond the upper border of the
neck. It presents on its surfaces and borders
numerous impressions, for the insertion of the muscles
of the buttock. The lesser trochanter, on the con-
trary, is smaller in size, mammillated or conical in
shape, and gives attachment to the psoas and iliacus
muscles only.

The Hip-joint. — The ilio-femoral or coxo-feinoral
articulation is formed by the reception of the head
of the femur into the cavity of the acetabulum, in
which it exactly fits. The edge of the cavity is
surrounded by the cotyloid and transverse ligaments^
which clasp the head of the femur and serve to
deepen the cavity and narrow its orifice. The
articulation is a ball and socket joint (enarthrosis).
As we should expect from the form of the articular
surfaces, every possible description of movement can
take place : the head of the femur can glide in all
directions in the cavity in which it is received,
producing the movement of abduction (the inferior
Hmb being carried outwards, away from the middle
line), adduction (towards the middle line), flexion
(forwards, the anterior surface of the thigh being
brought towards that of the abdomen), extension
(backwards), and rotation, of the femur, outwards
and inwards. But these movements are variously
influenced by the disposition of the ligaments of
the joint. Some are limited, others are very
extensive.

The ligamentous apparatus of the hip-joint
consists of a thick capsule of fibrous tissue, which
arises from the margin of the cotyloid cavity and
encloses the head and neck of the femur. The

The Thigh, Femur, and Hip-joint, 119

disposition of this capsule is very different in front
and behnid.

The capsule is composed of superficial longi-
tudinal fibres stretching from acetabulum to femur,
and thickened, except posteriorly, to form strong
ligaments ; and deeper, circular fibres, which aloyie
constitute the back part of the capsule — conse-
quently the capsule is thinner and weaker at the
back, where the circular fibres appear superficially —
constituting the zona circularise or ligament of Bertini.
The posterior portion of the capsule consequently
cannot at any time become tense. The movement
of flexion, indeed, may be continued as far as possible
without causing tension of the back of the capsule
of the joint. It is for this reason we speak ol
flexion of the thigh as unlimited, and, in fact, it may
be continued until the anterior surface of the thigh
comes in contact with the abdomen.

The other movements of the thigh at the hip-joint
are limited by the several longitudinal ligamentous
bands of the capsule. In front, the capsule of the
joint is put on the stretch when the thigh is carried
backwards during extension, and the movement is
checked when it arrives at a certain point. This
is due to the ilio-femoral, or Y-shaped ligament of
Bigelom, which extends from the acetabular margin
to the front of the neck of the femur, dividing as it
descends into two bands. It is the most important
ligament of the hip -joint. Owing to the strength
of this ligament, the movement of extension can be
limited and checked at any given moment. Now if
we try the experiment on ourselves, having flexed
the thigh on the abdomen and then gradually

120 Ar TIS tic a NA TOM Y.

extend it; we shall perceive that the movement is
arrested at the moment when the axis of the thigh
is in a continuous line with that of the body (or
if the subject is upright, when the thigh is vertical).
If we repeat this experiment on the dissected sub-
ject, with the joint prepared, we see that the ilio-
femoral ligament is relaxed when the thigh is flexed
on the pelvis, and becomes tense in proportion as
the bone is extended, and that this tension arrives
at its maximum when the femur is found in a line
with the trunk, and the ilio-femoral ligament presents
an insurmountable obstacle to any further extension.

It is true that a man in the upright position
can move his thigh backward ; but it is necessary
to observe, if, for example, it is the right thigh which
is carried backward, it is not in the right hip-joint
that the movement takes place, but in the left ; in
other words, the trunk is flexed upon the left femur.
We may therefore state that when the thigh is so
extended as to be in the same continuous plane with
the trunk, the thigh and trunk form one and the
same piece, and the two parts are incapable of
further extension ; and, consequently, when one
thigh is carried behind the vertical line, the trunk
must be rotated to an equal extent on the opposite
side.

The iho-femoral band plays also an important
part in the maintenance of the erect attitude.
Being stretched in extension of the thigh, the head
and neck of the femur rest against it, and so the
erect position can be maintained without excessive
muscular exertion. The ilio-femoral ligament also,
aided by the pubo-fernoral band of the capsule,

The Thigh, Femur, and Hip-joint. 121

presents an obstacle to abduction , or the movement
of the thigh outwards, in the upright position, when
the hgament is tense. When the thigh is shghtly
flexed on the pelvis, and the ligament is relaxed

Fig. 40.
Outline of Buttock and Thigh.

abduction of the thigh becomes comparatively easy
(Fig. 40).

The movement of adduction, or bringing of the
thighs together, is limited by the ilio-trocha^iteric

122 Artistic Anatomy.

band of the capsule, and by the ligamentuyn teres —
a special ligament, not part of the capsule, con-
tained within the joint. This movement becomes
very easy if the joint is slightly bent. If we try
the experiment on an articulation in which the
ilio-femoral ligament is cut, we perceive that in
the position of extension the movement of adduc-
tion is just as difficult as if the ligament were
intact. This is due to the presence of the Uga-
menhnn teres. This ligament is attached by one
extremity to the rou»gh depression below and
behind the head of the femur, and by the other
extremity, which is bifurcated, to the margins of
the acetabular notch. We have already seen that
in the pelvis of a man in the upright position
this notch looks directly downwards (page io6) ;
the ligament in this position is also vertical, and
is put on the stretch, as the two ligaments, so to
speak, help to suspend the pelvis on the heads of
the femora. Now, in the upright position, the
femur being vertical, the movement of adduction
could be produced only by a gliding movement of
the head of the femur in the acetabular cavity ;
but this gliding movement cannot take place, as
the head of the femur is kept in position by the
tense, round, or suspensory ligament. If, on ■ the
contrary, the femur is slightly flexed, the round
ligament will be found relaxed ; this permits the
gliding of the head in the cavit}', and at the same
time permits of adduction, a movement which may
now be accomplished with ease. An experiment
which proves these facts without giving an ana-
tomical demonstration of them (obtainable only from

The Thigh, Femur, and Hip-joint. 123

a prepared subject) is very easy to accomplish upon
oneself. If one stands perfectly upright, rigid, with
the body thrown backwards as far as possible, it
will be seen that it is almost impossible to bring
the two thighs and knees close together. Adduc-
tion is almost entirely lost in this position, so that
we should be unable to bring the knees together
and crush a fragile body, such as an ^gg^ placed
between them. But if, on the other hand, we flex
the thighs a little, or the trunk is bent on the
thighs, adduction becomes extremely easy, and
now we can knock the knees together without
any difficulty.

The hip-joint is remarkable for the fact that
upon it we can most conveniently demonstrate a
law which applies also to all the other articula-
tions, but of which we have reserved the explana-
tion until now — namely, the law relative to the
influence of atmospheric pressure in maintaining
articular surfaces in contact. Up to the present,
in studying the articulations, we have spoken of
the form of the articular surfaces, and from their
outline we have been able to deduce the nature
of the movements permitted in the joint ; we have
spoken of the ligaments which surround the joint,
and from their arrangement we have been able to
infer the limits imposed upon these movements.
But we have not spoken of the conditions which
enable one articular surface to glide upon another
without separating, and which maintain the sur-
faces in intimate and permanent apposition. It
might be thought that this function devolves
on the ligaments, but this would be an error ;

124 ^ ^ TIS TIC A NA TOM Y.

it is atmospheric pressure which keeps up this
contact.

The head of the femur is fitted very exactly into
the hollow of the acetabulum. In the first place,
the head of the femur is in close contact with the
cavity, the non-articular portion of which is filled
up by adipose tissue. In the second place, the
cotyloid ligament closely encircles the base of the
head of the femur, and may be compared to the
edges of a cupping-glass. Now, as a vacuum exists
between the two articular surfaces, and the air cannot
penetrate between them, they adhere very closely
to each other, merely allowing one to glide on
the other ; but if by any means air is allowed to
obtain access to the interior of the joint the bones
naturally fall apart. The experiments which explain
those facts were first demonstrated by the brothers
Weber.

We have felt it important to dwell here, once for
all, on the important part which atmospheric pres-
sure plays in the mechanism of joints. Analogous
experiments show that this pressure plays compara-
tively the same part in other articulations in main-
taining their articular surfaces in contact.

Measurements and Proportions of the
Hips. — To return to the study of the region of the
hips, we must now examine the Irafisverse dimen-
sio7is of this region, and the external forms which
result from the presence of bony prominences,
especially the great trochanter ol the femur.

The transverse distance which separates the one
great trochanter of the femur from the other should
be compared with the distance between the heads

The Thigh, Femur, and Hip- joint. 125

of the humeri ; in other words, we must compare
the diameter of the hips with that of the shoulders.

What strikes us most in this comparison, at the
first glance at a series of skeletons, is the great pro-
jection which the hips form in the female. In order
to express this difference, various formulae have been
proposed. In one such formula the trunk is regarded
as a figure more or less regularly oval, of which one
extremity corresponds to the shoulders, the other to
the hips, and in the two sexes the diameter is greater
at one end than at the other. The ancients expressed
the formula in the following manner : — In the male
and in the female the trunk represents an ovoid —
that is to say, an oval similar to that of a figure of
an Qgg having a greater and a smaller extremity. In
the male this figure has its greater end above, while
in the female the lower is the larger end. According
to this formula, in the female the diameter of the
hips exceeds that of the shoulders, while in the male
it is the diameter of the shoulders which exceeds that
of the hips. The formula, as regards the female at
any rate, is evidently exaggerated. In fact, Salvage
and Malgaigne proposed the following formula : —
Allowing that the trunk of the male is an ovoid,
with the greater extremity superior, the trunk of
the female forms an ellipse — that is to say, a figure
in which both extremities are of the same dimen-
sions ; so that while in the male the diameter of
the shoulders exceeds that of the hips, in the female
the diameter of the hips is just equal to it.

Now this last formula also exaggerates the real
proportions of the hips in the female. The correct
formula is as follows : — In the male, as well as in

1 26 Artistic A na tomy.

the female, the trunk represents an ovoid with the
greater diameter above ; but while in the male the
difference between the greater extremity and the
smaller is very considerable, in the female this
difference is very slight. We can see by actual
measurements that in the female the diameter of
the hips, though always less, differs very little
from that of the shoulders. In the male, the
distance from the head of one humerus to the
corresponding part on the opposite side [inter-
humeral diameter^ is on the average 15^ inches,
and the measure taken from one great trochanter
to the other {inter-trochanteric diameter^ is \2\
inches ; a difference between the two diameters of
about one-fifth. In the female, the inter-humeral
diameter is on the average 13! inches; the inter-
trochanteric diameter is i2\ inches; therefore there
is between the two diameters a difference of about
one-twelfth. These figures also serve to demonstrate
that the diameter of the shoulders is greater in the
male than in the female (15 to 14), and that
inversely the diameter of the hips is greater in the
female than in the male (12^ to 12 J) ; so that,
accordingly, if a man and a woman of average
stature are supposed to throw their shadow on the
same portion of a screen, the shadow of the
shoulders of the male would cover a much larger
surface than the shadow of the shoulders of the
female ; and, on the contrary, the shadow of
the hips of the woman would exceed the shadow
of the hips of the man, but only to a very
small extent.

In the foregoing paragraphs we have dealt with

The Thigh, Femur, and Hip- joint, 127

the transverse hip-measurements as inter-trochan-
teric. There is, however, another method of
measurement, which justifies to a certain extent
the formulae adopted by the authors previously
mentioned ; it consists in comparing on the skele-
ton in both sexes the diameter of the pelvis without
the femora with the diameter of the shoulders
without the humeri. In this instance the shoulders
are represented by the inter-acromial, and the hips
by the inter-iliac diameter (from one iliac crest
to the other). Under these circumstances the exact
measurements show that in the male the inter-
acromial diameter is i2f inches, and the inter-iliac
II inches ; therefore, as in the other formula, the
trunk, deprived of its members, still represents an
ovoid, with its greater extremity superior. On the
other hand, in the female, the inter-acromial dia-
meter is iij inches, and the inter-iliac measurement
is 12 inches; so that here the trunk, deprived of
its members, represents an ellipse or an ovoid, with
its greater extremity below, although the upper
extremity differs very little in size from the lower.
The fault of this method of measurement is that
it does not explain things as they are. The artist
does not contemplate the torso as otherwise than
complete — that is to say, provided with the upper
and lower hmbs — and it is absolutel)^ necessary to
take into account the part which the head of the
humerus and the great trochanter of the femur take
in the formation of the contours of the shoulder and
hips. We have thought it desirable, however, to
demonstrate this mode of measurement, because of
the clear illustration which it gives of the greater

128 Artis tic a na tomy.

diameter of the female pelvis as compared with
that of the male.

If we arrange in a table the figures given above
for the inter-humeral, inter-trochanteric, inter-

X

X

X X

,1 4 , \J \ t • l^«l I.I, II ^, , t %^

h

11 11

a ! 1 ■ ■ I

;i

i i; 1! ii

1 i! 1 i

i ;: ! !!

i^ ij i

d d'.

1-iG. 41^ Fig. 42.

Diagram comparing the diameters Diagram comparing the diameters

of the hips with the diameters of the of the hips with the diameters of the
shoulders in the male. shoulders in the female,

acromial, and inter-iliac diameters in the male and
in the female, or if, better still, we represent
those figures by lines intended to express, on the
profile of a man and that of a woman, the propor-
tionate value of the diameters of the region of the
shoulders compared with the diameters of the pelvis
and the hips, we obtain two figures which express in
a striking manner all that has been pointed out
(Figs. 41 and 42).

We see, in fact, that in the male subject (Fig. 41)
the vertical lines ( y and y) passing through the

The Thigh, Femur, and Hip- joint. i2c^

extremities of the inter-trochanteric {d d) and the
inter-ihac (c c) diameters, both fall within the ex-
tremity of the inter-humeral (b b), and also the
inter-acromial diameter {a a) ; on the contrary, in
the female (Fig. 42) we find that these same vertical
lines both fall within the extremities of the inter-
humeral {b b), but on the outer side of the inter-
acromial (a a) diameter.

The Great Trochanter, — A word is necessary con-
cerning the influence of the great trochanter of the
femur on the external form of the hip. Looking at
the skeleton the great trochanter is seen to stand out
so clearly and forms a projection so considerable that
we should expect to see on the model a prominence
corresponding to its shape. This, however, is not so.
The gluteal muscles which proceed from the pelvis to
be attached to the great trochanter are numerous and
thick, and the fleshy bellies of the more superficial
form a projection which is raised above the tro-
chanter ; while over the process they are replaced
by tendons, more or less flattened, so that the
trochanter is marked on the surface by a depression
bounded by the muscles — the tensor vaginae femoris
in front, the glutei muscles above and behind.
Below, the concave space corresponding to the great
trochanter is continuous with the broad, flat surface
which occupies the outer aspect of the thigh.

There are many analogous cases where osseous
projections are frequently marked on the external
figure by a depression, and the reason is always the
same as that just explained, that these osseous pro-
jections give insertion to muscles, the fleshy bellies
of which give place to tendinous expansions at a little
J

130 Artistic Anatomy,

distance from them, and form by their thickness a
raised surface round the prominence ; in a general
way, then, we may say that, -with a few exceptions
(such as the malleoh of the ankle-joints), wherever
an osseous surface is covered over only by the skin,
the muscles which surround this surface arise above
its level, and in consequence the bone is marked by a
depression, more or less pronounced as the subject is
more or less muscular. Similarly, the middle portion
of the sternum is marked superficially by a depres-
sion limited on each side by the swelling of the
great pectoral muscles, and the internal surface of
the tibia forms a long and broad groove when the
anterior and posterior muscles of the leg are well
developed.

131

CHAPTER XI.

THE THIGH AND KNEE.

The bony structure of the thigh and knee — Shaft of femur : its curvature ;
oblique direction; linea aspera, — Lower extremity of femur : condyles;
inter- condyloid notch ; patellar surface. — Patella : ligament of the
patella. — Upper parts of the bones of the leg. — Head of the Tibia :
tuberosities and tubercle. — Head ol fibula. — Articulation of the knee;
relation of the bones in flexion and extension. — Ligamentous apparatus ;
capsule ; its laxity and extent in front, whence the facility and extent of
movement in flexion ; its strength and shortness behind, whence the
limit of movement in extension. — Lateral ligaments of the knee :
their special mechanism. — Lateral movements of the knee : crucial
ligaments. — Form of the region of the knee : surface below the patella ;
projection of patella ; ligament of patella. — Osseous projections on the
external surface and the insertion of tendons. — Simplicity of the form of
inner surface of the knee.

Having studied the upper extremity of the femur
with regard to the articulation, proportions, and
contour of the region of the hips, we shall continue
the study of this bone by examining its shaft and
inferior extre?nityy and this latter part brings us to
the articulation of the hiee.

The shaft of the femur is not straight, but is
distinctly curved, with its convexity forward and
outwards. On the living model this convexity
may be recognised in the form of the anterior sur-
face of the thigh, which is distinctly convex in
front and on the outer side, the muscles which
cover the femur in front being disposed in such
a manner as to increase this appearance still more,
as their fleshy masses are grouped together in the

132

A R TIS TIC A NA TOMY.

'^>'A

10

middle line of the anterior region of the thigh.

The outward projection is most marked in cases

of excessive muscular de-
velopment, and is con-
sequently more obvious in
the male than in the
female, and is best shown
in the limbs of athletes.
Again, the femur, in the
model when standing
upright, is not
vertically,
obliquely
downwards

(Fig. 43),

directed
rather
above

inwards

FiG. 43.

Left Femur (posterior view). —

I, I, linea aspera; — 2, 2, its external
superior bifurcation ; — 3, its internal
superior bifurcation ;— 4, 4, its inferior
bifurcations; — 5, head of femur; — 61
depression in the head giving in-
sertion to ligamentum teres ; —
7, neck of femur ;— 8, great tro-
chanter;— 9, internal surface of great
trochanter; — 10, small trochanter; —

II, external condyle; — 12, internal
condyle ; — 13, inter-condyloid notch ;
— 14, 15, tuberosities surmounting
each of these condyles.

but

from

and

so that the
superior extremities of the
femur are placed at some
distance, comparatively
speaking, from each other,
while the lower extremities
come very near each other
at the level of the knees.
In the female this obliquity
is more clearly marked
than in the male, for the
upper extremities of the
two bones are in the
former placed more widely
apart, as we have already
seen when demonstrating
the relative diameter of
the hips (inter-trochanteric
diameter) in the female.

The Foot,

159

opening into the tarsus, into which the posterior
extremity of the second metatarsal bone is received.
In front of the tarsus is found the metatarsus ^ cor-
responding to the metacarpus of the hand, while the
toes correspond to the fingers. We have only a
few words to say about those portions of the skele-
ton which resemble the corresponding parts of the
hand.

Fio. 55.

Right Foot (external border).— i to 6, the calcaneum ;— 7, the tibial surface
of the astragalus ;— 8, the lateral facet of the astragalus for the external malleolus;
— 9, the tunnel of the tarsus (canalis tarsi) ; — 10, the posterior calcaneo-astragaloid
articulations; — 11, head and neck of the astragalus;— 12, the scaphoid ;— 13,
cuboid ; — 14, commencement of the groove on the inferior surface of the cuboid
(for the tendon of the long peroneus muscle) ; — 16, external cuneiform ; — 17,
middle cuneiform ; — 18, the five metatarsal bones with their posterior extremities
(19) ; — 20, 21, 22, 23, fourth, third, second, and first metatarsal bones; — 24 to 25,
phalanges of the toes.

The metatarsal bones, five in number, are long
bones, each composed of a prismatic shaft and two
extremities, one posterior or tarsal, more or less
wedge-shaped ; the other anterior or digital, forming
a rounded, globular head which articulates with the
base of a phalanx. The metatarsal bones are placed
parallel side by side, but that of the great toe is not
markedly shorter than its fellows like the metacarpal
bone of the thumb, and the great toe does not pos-
sess anything like the same amount of mobility as
the thumb. It is further directed straight forward so
as to complete the straight line of the inner border

i6o Artistic Anatomy,

of the foot. With regard to particular details, it is
necessary to note in the first metatarsal (19, Fig. 54)
its large size, in the second {22, Fig. 55), its greater
length, for it passes behind the others (in entering
into the notch which corresponds to the middle
cuneiform), and it also exceeds them in length, so
that the second toe is as a rule a little longer than
the rest. In the fifth we must note the form of its
tarsal extremity, prolonged behind into a process (19,
Fig. 55) which appears as a prominence at the middle
of the outer border of the foot, and gives insertion
to the short peroneal muscle. Lastly, it may be
observed that all the metatarsal bones except the
first are sloped inwards and forwards, to point as
it were towards the great toe.

The phalanges ot the toes (Figs. 54 and 55) re-
semble in number and arrangement the corresponding
bones of the hand, only they are much shorter,
especially those of the little toe, the two last of
which are reduced to small osseous nodules, so that
the fifth toe is always much shorter than the rest.
The names of the phalanges are the same as in the
hand (page 93).

The Foot as a whole. — The skeleton of the
foot forms an arch which presents two curves or
concavities, one antero-posterior, the other transverse.
The sole of the foot forms a hollow which extends
from the posterior extremity of the calcaneum to
the anterior extremity of the metatarsal bones ;
but this plantar hollow is much more elevated on
the inner side (Fig. 54) than on the outer side
(Fig. 55). It is necessary, in other words, in order
to understand the general form of the foot, to consider

The Thigh and Knee. 133

The shaft of the femur presents three surfaces
— one anterior, one postero-external, and one pos-
tero-internal ; ana three borders, two lateral and
one posterior. The two lateral borders are ver}''
rounded, not sharp ; the posterior border, on the
contrary, is very prominent, and forms a rough
line, called the linea aspera (i, Fig. 43), which
gives insertion to a number of muscles. This linea
aspera divides above into two bifurcations slightly
diverging, of which the outer one (2, 2, Fig. 43)
proceeds towards the great trochanter {gluteal
ridge), and the inner one passes towards the lesser
trochanter Below, the linea aspera bifurcates in
the same manner, one of its branches going to the
inner, the other to the outer condyle of the femur

(4; 4, Fig. 43)-

The inferior extrefuity of the femur is widely

expanded, both in the transverse and in the antero-
posterior diameter. When we examine the posterior
aspect of this extremity (Fig. 43) we see that it is
formed by two large prominences directed back-
wards, which are termed the external and internal
condyles. These project laterally, and the inner
condyle is much more prominent than the outer.
The inferior and posterior surfaces of these condyles
are smooth and covered with articular cartilage ;
between them is a deep hollow behind called the
inter-condyloid notch (13, Fig. 43). When we
examine the anterior surface of the lower end of
the femur we see that the condyles are united, and
their smooth and continuous articular surface, covered
with cartilage, serves to articulate with the knee-cap.
This is the patellar surface. This surface presents a

134 ^ ^ ^^S TIC A NA TOMY.

depression in the middle line and two lateral lips, of
which the external, continuous with the external
condyle, is more prominent and rises higher than
the internal, which is continuous with the internal
condyle. These details are very important, for, as
we shall see, the lips of the patellar surface show
prominently beneath the skin when the knee is
strongly flexed, and we can notice their differences
in prominence and height.

In forming the articulation of the knee, the lower
end of the femur is in direct contact with the patella
and the upper end of the tibia, and is connected (by
ligaments) with the upper end of the fibula. We
will now consider the patella and the upper ex-
tremities of the two bones of the leg.

The patella^ which has been compared to a
disc (whence its name), is more nearly triangular
in shape, presenting an anterior surface longitu-
dinally striated and slightly convex, and a posterior
surface moulded on the patellar surface of the
femur, and forming an oval articular surface with a
median ridge and two lateral hollows. The borders
of the patella are three : two lateral oblique borders
for the attachment of muscles and ligaments ; and
a base directed upwards, into which the tendon of
the quadriceps extensor (and particularly the rectus
femoris) is inserted. The apex of the bone is
directed downwards, and attaches a strong liga-
ment which is inserted into the tubercle of the
tibia, and is termed the ligament of the patella.
Properl)^ speaking, this ligament is a continuation
of the tendon of the rectus femoris muscle. The
patella should be considered as a sesamoid bone, an

The Thigh and Knee.

135

osseous nodule developed in the substance of this
tendon.

The leg, like the forearm, is composed of two
bones. One, the larger of the two, is placed on
the inner side (i. Fig. 44) — the
tihiay or shin-hone ; the other,
much shorter, is situated on the
outer side, and a little behind —
the fihula (9, Fig. 44). As in the
case of the two bones of the
forearm, the bones of the leg end
at different levels above and
below. Above, the tibia rises
higher than the fibula, and alone
takes a direct part in the articula-
tion of the knee ; below, the fibula
extends lower than the tibia — so
that the outer ankle {external
malleolus) descends lower than the
inner one. We will now for a
moment examine the upper ex-
tremities of the two bones.

The upper extremity of the
tibia is expanded from side to ^ig. 44.

side, to form the tuberosities (in-
ternal and external), surmounted
by two articular surfaces, external
and internal (2, 3, Fig. 44), for ar-
ticulation with the corresponding
femoral condyles. The non-articular
interval between these two sur-
faces presents in its centre a pro-
jection like a bifurcated cone which

The two Bones of
Left Leg (anterior
view). — I, shaft of
tibia ; — 2, 3, its in-
ternal and external tu-
berosities; — 4, spine
of tibia; — 5, tubercle
of tibia; — 6, shin; — 7,
lower end of tibia, with
internal malleolus (8) ;
— 9, shaft of libula; —

10, its upper end; —

11, its lower end or
extern.il mnlleolus.

136 Artistic Anatomy. '

is known as the spine of the tibia. In front of the
spine and behind it are rough triangular surfaces
for the attachment of the crucial liga?nents.

The circumference of the upper end of the tibia
forms a broad rough margin for attachment of the
capsule of the knee-joint. In front, it is prolonged
downwards into a large triangular surface which
ends in a rounded eminence, called the tubercle of the
tibia, which gives insertion to the ligament of the
patella previously mentioned. On the outer side and
back of the external tuberosity is a rounded facet,
smooth and covered with cartilage, and directed
mainly downwards for articulation with the head of
the fibula (10, Fig. 44). Lastly, on the back of the
bone is the 72oich of the tibia, separating the two
tuberosities from one another.

The upper end of the fibula forms (10, Fig. 44) an
irregular rounded knob. It is situated external to
and rather behind the upper end of the tibia, and
articulates, as already seen, by its upper surface with
the outer tuberosity of the tibia. External to the
articular surface is a smooth area for the attachment
of the biceps tendon, and the long external lateral
ligament of the knee. Behind this area is the styloid
process, which gives attachment to the short external
lateral ligament of the knee. The head of the fibula
can be plainly felt through the skin, below and
behind the head of the tibia.

Such are the bony structures which take a direct
(femur, tibia, patella) and indirect part (fibula) in the
conformation of the knee-joint. In the living model,
in the erect posture, the condyles of the femur rest
by their inferior surfaces on the upper surface of the

The Thigh and Knee.

137

tibia, and the apposition of the articular surfaces
is rendered more exact by the presence between the
articular surfaces of the femur and tibia of two sejni-
lunar fibro-cartilageSj which increase the depth of
the tibial surfaces (5, 5,
Fig. 46), so that the corre-
sponding condyle of the
femur is received into a
true articular cavity. At the
same time, the patella is
closely applied to the con-
fluent anterior surface of the
lower end of the femur.
When, on the other hand,
the model is kneeling, or,
more generally, when the leg
is flexed (carried backwards),
the patella, which is firmly
fixed to the tibia by its liga-
ment, glides downwards on
the femur, and comes in con-
tact with the lower part of articular ligaments ;—8, 8, one
- ^ of the muscles of the calf; —

its anterior SUriaCe at the a, a, anterior part, and 6, posterior

same time that the posterior Partof the articular capsule ;-C.

■t^ adipose mass beneath patella.

parts of the condyles in turn

roll over the upper surfaces of the tibia.

After this rapid sketch of the bones which
enter into the formation of the knee-joint, we have
now to study in detail its ligamentous apparatus.
The ligamentous apparatus of the knee is essen-
tially composed of a fibrous capsule, attached to the
borders of the articular surfaces of the femur, patella,
and tibia. It is strengthened on all sides by the

Fig. 45.

The Articular Parts of
THE Knee (antero-posterior sec-
tion).— I, femur; — 2, tibia; — 3,
fibula; — 4, patella; — 5, rectus
tendon ; — 6, ligament of patella ;
— 7, one of the crucial inter-

138 Al? TIS TIC A NA TOMY.

tendons of muscles attached to these bones in the
neighbourhood of the knee. Without entering into
unnecessary detail, we must consider the arrange-
ment of this capsule, and its disposition on its
anterior, posterior, and lateral aspects, and then
consider how it affects the movements of the knee-
joint, rendering some movements easy and extensive,
while it limits others or makes them almost im-
possible.

In front {a a, Fig. 45) the capsule is loose and
expanded and is mainly formed by the insertion of
the quadriceps extensor muscle into the patella, with
its continuation to the tubercle of the tibia as the
ligament of the patella. This arrangement accounts
for the ease and extent of the movement of flexion.
In this movement, the tibia being carried backwards,
and drawing with it the patella in the relaxed condi-
tion of the quadriceps extensor muscle, the capsule of
the joint is put on the stretch. It would curtail the
movement of flexion if it were short and compact ;
but the capsule at this point is so expanded and loose
that no increase of movement on the part of the
leg can cause any tension. Thus flexion of the
knee may be prolonged until the calf of the
leg comes in contact with the posterior surface
of the thigh.

Behind, the capsule ot the joint is short and thick,
and consists of a strong posterior ligament. When
the leg is flexed on the thigh, this ligament is relaxed ;
but as the leg passes from flexion to extension it
becomes tense, and when extension has arrived at
that point which brings the leg in direct continuation
with the thigh, no further movement is possible in

The Thigh and Knee,

139

a forward direction, and the limb is therefore fixed in
this position.

There are, moreover, other important h'gaments
which act, and still more forcibly, in the same
manner ; namely, the internal and external lateral
ligaments of the joint, which must now be con-
sidered.

Fig 46.

The Knee state of the
lateral ligaments (a, V)
during flexion. — i, femur;
— 2, condyle of femur ; — 3
tibia ; — 4, fibula ; — 5, 5, sec-
tion of semi-lunar fibro-
cartilage.

Fig 47

The Knee : lateral liga-
ments tense during exten-
sion of the leg on the thigh
(the distance, a b, is greater
here than in preceding
figure); for the lettering,
see precedin^i figure.

The hiternal lateral ligament is a broad band of
fibres, which passes from the inner tuberosity of the
femur over the inner tuberosity of the tibia to be
attached to the upper part of the shaft of the tibia
on the inner side. It helps to form the contour of
the inner side of the knee.

The long external lateral ligament is a rounded
cord, very strong and quite distinct from the capsule.
Its inferior extremity is not inserted into the tibia,
but into the head of the fibula between the insertions
of the biceps muscle (Figs. 46, 47, <?, U), The most

1 40 Aj^ tis tic a na tom y,

remarkable characteristic of these ligaments is that
their upper ends, attached to the lateral surfaces of
the condyles of the femur, are not inserted at the
centre of the curve of the condyles, but at a point
situated more posteriorly {a, b, Figs. 46 and 47).
During flexion these ligaments are therefore relaxed,
but as extension is produced, as the tibia is carried
forward on the curved surface of the condyles of the
femur, these ligaments gradually become tense, their
points of insertion becoming further and further apart,
owing to the eccentric insertion of their superior
extremities. When the leg reaches that position of
extension in which it is in line with the femur, the
tension of the lateral ligaments is such as to arrest
its movement and completely fix the leg in relation
to the thigh. This may be seen by comparing Figs.
46 and 47. We see, then, that owing to the position
of the anterior, posterior, and lateral ligaments of the
knee-joint, the movement of flexion in this joint is
very extensive, while that of extension is limited, as
it cannot be prolonged further than the position
which brings the leg into direct continuity with the
thigh.

These ligaments are also responsible for the
amount of lateral movement and rotation possible
in the knee-joint. This articulation being formed
by two condyles, it is very evident that lateral
flexion cannot be produced, for then it would be
necessary for one of the condyles to become
detached from the corresponding articular surface
of the tibia. Lateral movement is thus impossible,
but a slight gliding movement under certain con-
ditions takes place between the condyle of the

The Thigh and Knee. 141

femur and the tibia, a movement produced by a
rotatory movement, of which the other condyle
forms the centre. These shght movements of rota-
tion, which contribute to the motion by which we
direct the point of the foot outwards or inwards,
are impossible during complete extension, when
the tibia is fixed on the femur by the tension of
the lateral ligaments and the posterior part of the
capsule, and all the parts have already arrived at
their maximum of tension. But when flexion
occurs, and especially when the leg is at a right
angle to the thigh, as in the seated subject, slight
movements of rotation of the leg become possible ;
they are of small extent, it is true, especially in-
wards ; since it is easier for the knee to take
part in the movement which turns the foot out-
wards, than that which turns it inv/ards. This
difference between rotation inwards and outwards
is due to the presence within the joint of two
ligaments called the crucial ligaments, of which
we will only mention that they arise from the
upper end of the tibia, between the two articular
surfaces (page 136), and, crossing one another, are
attached above to the sides of the inter-condyloid
notch of the femur on the corresponding surface
of each condyle. This crossing of the two liga-
ments is increased by the rotation of the tibia
inwards, as this movement tends to twist them
one on the other, and fix the tibia, so as to
prevent rotation of the leg inwards. On the other
hand, rotation outwards unwinds these ligaments
and renders them more relaxed ; so that this
movement could be very extensive if the lateral

142 Art IS tic A na tom v.

ligaments did not prevent too great displacement
between the condyle of the femur and the corre-
sponding surface of the tibia.

There are still in relation to the knee-joint
several anatomical particulars which must now be
examined in relation to the exter?ial form of the
living model. '^

The posterior surface of the knee is covered
by numerous muscles and tendons which form the
boundaries of the ham or popliteal space ; the study
of this region will therefore be undertaken along
with the description of the muscles of the leg and
thigh. On the outer and inner surfaces, and on
the front of the knee-joint, however, many details
of outward form are caused solely by the osseous
and ligamentous parts, to which we must now draw
particular attention.

The anterior surface of the knee alters in shape
in the two positions of extension or slight flexion,
and in forcible flexion. In forcible flexion we
notice particularly the form of the articular lower
end of the femur (see page 134). In extension
we find on the anterior surface of the knee, in
succession from above downwards, a flat trian-
gular space above the patella ^ corresponding to the
tendon of the rectus femoris muscle ; next, the
prominence of the patella j showing clearly beneath
the skin its triangular shape, with the base above
and apex below ; the two superior angles of the
patella are frequently very distinct in the form of
two small rounded projections. Below, the liga-
ment of the patella forms a longitudinal eminence
in the middle line, reaching to the tubercle of the

The Thigh and Knee,

143

Fig. 48.
Outlines of the Lower Limb. — a, From behind ; b, from the front ; c, from

the outer side.

tibia, which is seen (in semi-flexion) as a large
projection. But, again, we frequently perceive on
each side of the ligament of the patella a slight,
soft eminence, easily depressed, which corresponds

144 Artistic Anatomy.

to parts not yet mentioned. These arc the thin
lateral portions of the capsule {lateral ligaments of
the patella), which extend from the sides of the
patella and patellar ligament to the tibial tuber-
osities. These portions of the capsule {c, Fig. 45)
are thin, and cover a large mass of adipose tissue,
which is prolonged into the interior of the joint
(as the alar ligaments), and which forms packing
for the articulation on either side of the ligament
of the patella (6, Fig. 45). When the quadriceps
extensor muscle draws forcibly on the patella and
its ligament, these compress this adipose mass to
a much greater degree, so as to form a bulging on
each side, and then the bilateral prominence in
question is much more clearly marked.

On the external lateral surface of the knee we
note the osseous prominences of the tubercle of the
tibia (seen here in profile) and its external tuberosity ;
behind and below, the head of the fibula ; and above,
the external condyle of the femur. To certain of
these prominences are attached the tendons coming
from the thigh, marked on the external surface of the
knee by three strong vertical bands ; viz. : — in front,
the tendon of the patella (seen here in profile) ;
behind, the tendon of the biceps femoris, proceeding
to be inserted into the head of the fibula ; and
between them the part of the aponeurosis of the
deep fascia of the thigh, which becomes narrow and
thickened, and forms a true tendon — the ilio-tibial
band — attached to the outer tuberosity of the tibia.

The form of the internal aspect of the knee is
simple. Here the internal condyle of the femur
and the corresponding tuberosity of the tibia form

The Thigh and Knee. 145

together a large regular hemispherical surface. The
internal lateral ligament forms a broad band (page
13 9), which sweeps over the inner tuberosity of the
tibia, accompanied by the tendons of the sartorius,
gracilis, and semi-tendinosus muscles, to become
inserted into the upper portion of the shaft of the
tibia. The ligament and tendons soften the outlines
of the bones, and give a rounded contour to the inner
side of the knee.

w.

146

CHAPTER XII.

THE LEG, ANKLE-JOINT, FOOT.

The bony structure of the leg. — Tibia Z-xxAJihula : tibio-fibular articulation ;
absence of mobility in the fibula (differences between the leg and fore-
arm : between the foot and hand, also in the quadrumanous monkeys).
Inferior extremities of these bones : tibio-fibular articulation ; the
malleoli : comparison of the internal and external malleoli with regard
to length, situation, and form. — The skeleton of the foot : tarsus, meta-
tarsus, and toes. — Importance of the bony structure of the tarsus and
its influence on the form of the foot : construction and arrangement of
tarsus, posterior half : anterior half. — Articulation of the leg with the
foot ; movements of the foot.

The two bones of the leg are placed, as we have
previously seen (page 135), parallel to each other, the
tibia on the inner side, the fihiila on the outer side
and somewhat behind (Fig. 49). The tihia can
be felt beneath the skin in its whole length. Its
shaft is triangular in section, and therefore presents
three surfaces and three margins (i. Fig. 49) : an
internal surface covered only by the skin and appear-
ing superficially as a long flat surface, broader above
where it looks a little forward, and inclining directly
inwards at its inferior part, where it becomes con-
tinuous with the prominence of the inner ankle or
internal malleolus (Fig. 50, page 150). The external
surface is slightly concave in order to lodge the
antero-external muscles of the leg, of which the
principal is the tibialis anticus ; below, this surface
inclines forwards, following the course of the tibialis
muscle, which, from the antero-external region of

The Leg, Ankle-joint, Foot,

147

the leg, is directed towards the inner border of the
foot (Fig. 50, page 150). The posterior surface of
the tibia is entirely covered by the strong and
numerous muscles of the posterior region of the leg.
Finally, of the three margins of the
shaft of the tibia the anterior is par-
ticularly prominent, and is known by
the name of the crest of the tibia or
shin (6, Fig. 49).

The fibula appears superficially,
as already seen, in the region of the
knee, at its upper end. Its lower
end is also obviously subcutaneous
at the outer ankle, where it forms
the external malleolus (9, Fig. 49J.
The shaft of the bone is long and
slender, and is prismatic in form.
It is curved from above downwards
and forwards, and downwards and
inwards. It serves the purpose of
a strengthening bar for the tibia, at
the same time that it increases the
area for the attachment of the
muscles of the leg. The shaft of
the fibula is surrounded on all sides
by these muscles.

The two bones are separated throughout their
entire length by an interval called the inter-
osseous space (Fig. 49), broader above than below,
and filled up by a fibrous membrane {inter-
osseous membra7ie), which, passing from one bone
to the other, still further increases the area for
attachment of the muscles of the leg. Above, the

„di''T _

Fig. 49.

Bones of the Leg
(front view).

148 Artistic Anatomy,

fibula articulates with the postero-external surface
of the superior extremity of the tibia, and this
superior tibio-Jibular articulation possesses a very
slight gliding movement, exercised chiefly through
the action of the biceps muscle in external rotation
at the knee-joint. Below, the fibula is attached to
the corresponding part of the tibia by a strong
interosseous ligament, forming a symphysis, or
synarthrodial joint. This inferior tibio-Jibular
articulation has hardly any mobility : it only gives
a certain amount of elasticity to the ankle-joint,
into which the foot is received. We see, there-
fore, that there is, with regard to mobility, a
great difference between the bones of the leg and
those of the forearm ; in the forearm the radius
is moveable on the ulna, and can turn in such a
manner as to cross the latter, and produce the
movements of pronation and supination of the hand.
Between the fibula and the tibia there is no move-
ment of the kind ; the foot is not capable of any
movement which may be compared to that which
takes place in the hand during pronation and
supination. We may say that it is the same with
monkeys, in the class called quadrumana ; they have
not the power of pronation and supination of the
foot, which, from this point of view, and also in every
other respect, is properly speaking a foot and not a
posterior hand, as their ancient name of quadrumana
would lead us to suppose.

Ankle-joint, — By their junction the inferior ex-
tremities of the tibia and fibula constitute an articular
cavity, which forms the ankle-joint, by their articu-
lation with a bone of the tarsus — the astragalus.

The Leg, Ankle-joint^ Foot. 149

This tibio- fibular cavity possesses three sides, of
which two, the superior and internal, are formed
by the tibia, and one only, the external, by the
fibula ; the two lateral walls correspond to the
two osseous parts which form the prominences of
the ankles and which are known by the name
of malleoli {malleus y a hammer). They are dis-
tinguished as the internal or tibial and external or
fibiilar malleoli (Fig. 49, page 147). As the internal
ankle or malleolus (8) is of a form and situation very
different to that of the external (11), it is important
to note here the configuration of the bones by which
the subcutaneous prominences are explained.

The malleoli differ in their level, in their situation,
and finally in their form (Figs. 50, 51). First,
we see at a glance that the external or fibular
malleolus (11) descends much lower than the
internal malleolus (8). Second, with regard to
the transverse plane of the two malleoli, just
as the shaft of the fibula is situated behind and
to the outer side of the tibia, so the same
position is maintained by the inferior extremities
of the two bones, and the external malleolus is
on a plane posterior to the internal malleolus. A
transverse line which passes through the centre of
the internal malleolus, passes outwards in front of
the anterior border of the external malleolus ; and,
on the other hand, a transverse line, passing through
the centre of the external malleolus, passes inwards
behind the posterior border of the internal malleolus.
Thirdly, with regard to the differences of form, these
are the direct result of the shape of the osseous parts.
The malleolar portion of the tibia, or internal malle-

I50

Artistic Anatomy.

olus, is square, presenting a horizontal inferior border,
and two vertical borders — one anterior, the other
posterior. On the contrary, the malleolar portion of

Fig. 50.
Outline of Ankle and Foot (inner side).

Fig. 51.
Outline of Ankle and Foot (outer side).

the fibula, or external malleolus, is triangular in
shape, or rather like the head of a serpent ; it ter-
minates below in a pointed extremity, formed by
the convergence of the two oblique borders — one
anterior, the other posterior — of which the anterior
i.<^ the more sloping.

The Leg, Ankle-joint, Foot.

151

Before entering into a study of the articulation
of the leg with the foot, or ankle-joint^ we must
glance at the bony structure of the foot as a whole,
so as to understand properly the significance of the
position of one of the bones {astragalus) in relation
to this joint.

Just as the hand is composed of three sets of
bones — the carpus,
metacarpus, and
fingers — so also the
foot is composed
of a similar series
— the tarsus, meta-
tarsus, and toes ;
but while in the
hand, where the
function is princi-
pally that of pre-
hension, the fingers
are long and the
carpus very short,
in the foot, which
serves as a base of support, the toes are com-
paratively short, while the tarsus, which cor-
responds to the carpus, is of considerable size ;
it forms, in fact, one-half of the length of
the foot. In order to understand the form of the
foot and its mechanism it is necessary to make a
particular study of the bones which compose the
tarsus.

As the carpus in the hand is formed by two
rows of bones, so also the tarsus is composed of two
groups. In the hand the carpal bones are grouped in

\ B

Fig. 52.

Outlines of the Foot (A, Dorsum ; B, Sole).

152 Artistic Anatomy.

two more or less transverse rows. In the foot, on
the other hand, the rows of tarsal bones are longi-
tudinally arranged ; and the inner row overlaps the
outer row in relation to the back part of the tarsus.
There are two bones in the outer row : the calcaneum
or OS calcis behind, which forms the prominence of the
heel and rests on the ground below : and the cithoidy
articulating with it in front and carrying anteriorly
the two outer metatarsal bones and the two outer
toes. The inner row consists of five bones : (i)
the astragalus or talus behind, which articulates
with the bones of the leg and helps to form the ankle-
joint above, which rests below on the upper surface
of the calcaneum, and which articulates in front
with the navicular bone ; (2) the navicular or
scaphoid bone ; and in front of this the three
cuneiform bones {internal, middle, and external),
which lie above and internal to the cuboid bone,
and carry the three inner metatarsal bones and
the three inner toes.

Alter this brief sketch of the tarsus, and before
entering into the details of the configuration of its
parts and the whole taken together, having seen
the particular place occupied by the astragalus, we
must study its articulation with the tibia and fibula.
The part of the astragalus which is received into the
cavity between the malleoli, is formed by the
posterior three-fourths (i. Fig. 53) of the superior
part of the bone, separated from the anterior fourth
by a narrow portion called the neck (2, Fig. 53).
This articular part is in the form of a pulley, with
the antero-posterior groove hardly perceptible, but
the lips are prolonged over the sides of the bone,

The Leg, Ankle-joint, Foot.

15

and come in contact witli the corresponding parts of
the internal and external malleoli. It is readily seen
(Fig. 53) that the articular surface of the astragalus
is considerably wider in front
than behind. The same is seen
in the shape of the lower end
of the tibia. The tibio-astraga-
hid articulation permits move-
ment chiefly in the anterio-
posterior plane, namely, move-
ment forward (flexion of the
foot) and backwards (extension).
During flexion of the foot on
the ankle the astragalus is re-
ceived in the malleolar cavity
as in a vice, and the result is
that no lateral movement is
possible. When, however, the
foot is extended, and the toes
are pointed, the narrower part
of the articular surface of the
astragalus comes into relation
with the wider portion of the
inter-malleolar articular surface,
and the result is that in this
position a certain amount of
lateral movement of the foot at
the ankle-joint is permitted,
aided, it is true, by gliding
movements taking place among the tarsal bones
themselves. Of the movements of flexion and
extension, that of extension is the most free, as
it may be continued until the axis of the foot

13
14
Fig. 53-

The Bones of the Foot,
seen from the dorsal sur-
face.— I, astragalus (with
its head and neck, 2); — 3,
calcaneum ; — 4, scaphoid ;
— 5, internal cuneiform ; —
6, middle cuneiform ; — 7,
external cuneiform; — 8, cu-
boid ; — 9, the metatarsus ;
— 10, II, the two phalanges
of the great toe ; — 12, 13, 14,
the first, second, and third
phalanges of the other toes.

154 ^ ^ 'r^S TIC A NA TOMY.

becomes continuous with that of the leg, and
here it is arrested by the meeting of the posterior
border of the joint with the projections on the pos-
terior border of the astragalus ; but the movement
of flexion by which the dorsal surface of the foot
is brought near the anterior surface of the leg is
more limited, for it is impossible to cause the foot
to make with the leg an angle less than forty-five
degrees, opening upwards and forwards. This is
accounted for by the shape of the articular surfaces.
In proportion as flexion is produced, the larger part
of the articular surface of the astragalus is wedged
into the malleolar cavity; thus the movement of
flexion is arrested, and the foot is fixed. We cannot
carry flexion further without bursting asunder the
tibio-fibular joint, just as we should split a piece of
wood by driving violently into it a wedge larger than
the cavity to be filled.

155

CHAPTER XIII.

THE FOOT.

Bony structure of the foot. — Union of bones of tarsus ; astragalus and
calcaneum (canalis tarsi, or tunnel of the tarsus) ; astragalar articula-
tions, inferior calcaneo-scaphoid ligament ; special functions of astra-
galus in the mechanism of the foot. — The other articulations of the
tarsus, and their movements. Metatarsus and Metatarsal bones ;
importance of fifth metatarsal with regard to form. — The toes and their
phalanges. — Skeleton of the foot as a whole ; form of the foot. —
Plantar arch. — Proportions of the lower limb ; the foot as a common
measure of the lower limb and the height.

We will now examine briefly the bones of the
tarsuSf especially with regard to the details which
mark their articulations. The inferior surface of
the astragalus presents two articular facets, separ-
ated by a deep, oblique groove. These two facets
correspond with two similarly situated on the
upper surface of the calcaneum. The astragalus
thus rests upon the calcaneum, but it is supported
on the inner side by a projection of the calcaneum,
known by the name of the sustentaculum tali;
and the anterior facet for the astragalus is to be
looked for on the upper surface of this projection
<^Fig. 53, page 153). The two facets of the cal-
caneum are also separated by a deep groove. It
follows, therefore, that when the astragalus is in
its place, the groove of the astragalus and the
calcaneum meet and form a kind of tunnel, which
is called the cavity oj the tarsus, or canalis tarsi.
This cavit}^ is filled up during life by a strong

156 Artistic Anatomy,

ligamentous band, which attaches the astragalus
to the calcaneum, and is called the hiterosseous
ligament. Placed between the two calcaneo-
astragaloid articulations, one in front of it and the
other behind, the ligament forms a sort of pivot,
around which the movements between the astra-
galus and _the calcaneum take place. It is round
these joints as a centre that the movements take
place by which the foot as a whole is turned
inwards or outwards, and so that its outer and
inner borders are elevated.

We have next to consider the articulations of
the calcaneum and astragalus with the other bones
of the tarsus. The articulation of the anterior
extremity of the calcaneum with the posterior sur-
face of the cuboid presents an interlocked arrange-
ment which is surrounded ' by strong ligaments,
especially on its lower plantar surface (the inferior
calcaneo-cuboid ligaments, or long and short plantar
ligaments), so that between the calcaneum and
the cuboid only a slight gliding movement takes
place, and to all intents and purposes these two
bones form one elastic piece. The plantar liga-
ments from their strength have an important
influence on the maintenance of the arch of the
foot. The cuboid bone articulates in front with
the metatarsal bones of the fourth and fifth toes,
so helping to complete the outer part of the
contour of the foot. On the inner side of the
foot the bones completing the tarsus in front
of the astragalus are the navicular (or scaphoid)^
and the three cuneifortn bones, internal, middle,
and external, which in turn are related to the

The Foot. 157

inner three metatarsal bones. The astragalo-
scaphoid articulation deserves the closest attention.
The head of the astragalus, so called from its
prominent rounded shape, articulates with the
navicular bone, which is prolonged internally into
a prominent tubercle. Between the sustentaculum
tali and this tubercle a very powerful ligament
passes, on which a part of the astragalus rests.
The ligament is called the inferior calcaneo-
scaphoid ligament, or spring ligament, and by its
means an articulation is completed between the
three bones — the astragalo-calcaneo- scaphoid joint.
The whole weight of the body may be supported
by the . inferior calcaneo-scaphoid ligament, which
thus serves an important purpose in supporting the
arch of the foot. This is the ligament which gives
way in flat-foot. By these articulations the foot
possesses the power of lateral movement, by which
the toes are carried inwards or outwards, and the
outer border of the foot is elevated and the inner
border is depressed, or the reverse. On the other
hand, the movements of flexion and extension take
place chiefly at the ankle-joint, the articulation,
previously explained, of the astragalus with the
tibia and fibula.

The navicular or scaphoid bone articulates in
front with the three cuneiform bones, and the
cuneiform bones articulate with each other by
facets which are flat, but present rough surfaces
towards their inferior or plantar portions intended
for interosseous ligaments. Similar articulations
exist externally between the scaphoid and external
cuneiform, and the cuboid bone. It is sufficient to

158

Artistic Anatomy.

say that in all these articulations a slight gliding
movement takes place, just sufficient to give a
certain elasticity to the plantar arch, which they
contribute to form. We may point out the pecu-
liarities that are to be noted in each of these
bones : the scaphoid or navicular bone is concave
behind, convex in front, and is prolonged into a

Fig. 54.

Right Foot (internal border). — i, 2, 3, 4, calcaneum ; — 5, 6, 7, astragalus; — 6,
posterior calcaneo-astragaloid articulation ; — g, head and neck of the astragalus; —
10, II, navicular or scaphoid; — 12, astragalo-scaphoid articulation; — 13, 14, in
ternal cuneiform ; — 15, articulation of the internal cuneiform with the scaphoid ; —
16, the articulation of the internal cuneiform with the metatarsal bone of the
great toe ; — 17, the middle cuneiform ; — 18, its articulation with the scaphoid; — 19,
the first metatarsal bone ; — 20, the second metatarsal bone ; — 21, the articulation
of the second metatarsal bone with the cuneiform bones; — 22, sesamoid bone; —
23, 24, the phalanges of the great toe ; 25, 25, phalanges of the other toes.

prominent tubercle, which can be felt at the middle
of the inner border of the foot ; the cuboid is quad-
rilateral or pyramidal in form, and has an oblique
groove (14, Fig. 55) on its inferior or plantar
surface, which contains the tendon of the long
teroneal muscle (see below) ; finally, the three cunei-
for?7i bones are distinguished, counting from within
outwards, as the internal^ middle ^ and externai
cuneiform (Fig. 53, page 153); the middle cunei-
form (6) is smaller than the others, and does not
extend so far forward, so that in relation to it
the line of the tarso-metatarsal joints forms a notch

The Foot. i6i

that its dorsal surface looks upwards and outwards^
and the sole downwards and inwards. The outer
border is thin, and comes almost in contact with the
ground, its inner border is thick and is raised from
the ground.

The skeleton of a well-articulated foot placed
upon a horizontal surface comes in contact with the
flat surface only by the posterior extremity (tuberosity)
of the calcaneum (heel), and by the heads of the
metatarsal hones (the balls of the toes, Fig. 52, page
151). When the foot is covered with its soft parts
these points of contact are scarcely changed ; for, ex-
cept at the heel and the balls of the toes, we see
that the greater part of the outer border of the foot
touches the ground but lightly, unless the subject
is carrying a heavy load, which, pressing upon the
plantar arch, brings its elasticity into play and
slightly flattens it. We shall mention later on the
special structures (ligaments and tendons) which act
as cords which bend the bow and maintain the
plantar arch.

Proportions of the Lower Limb. — As we have
already inquired into the ratio of proportions of
the hand and upper limb, we shall now see if the
foot can furnish any measurements relative to the
proportions of the body. We find that we can make
the foot, no more than the hand, a common measure
for the body in general and for the inferior limb
in particular. We must confine ourselves to such
measurements as will apply to the average subject.
Thus it is easy to perceive upon the skeleton that
the distance from the upper margin of the head
of the femur to the inferior border of the internal

1 62 Artistic Anatomy.

condyle is equal to twice the length of the foot ;
but this has no practical value — it cannot be used
on the living body, as it is difficult to recognise
the level of the upper part of the head ot the
femur. If, instead of the head of this bone, we
take the superior border of the great trochanter
(a part easily felt beneath the skin), we find that
the length from the superior border of the great
trochanter to the inferior border of the external
condyle scarcely ever measures the length of two
feet, as the great trochanter is upon a considerably
lower level than the head of the femur.

The leg, including the thickness of the foot, is
not as much as twice the length of the foot — that is,
the distance from the lower border of the internal
cond3de of the femur to the ground (or the sole
of the foot) ; but it is interesting to observe that
in general the length of the leg, plus the thickness
of the foot, is equal to the distance from the great
trochanter to the lower border of the external
condyle; in other words, the centre point of the
lower limb (starting from the great trochanter)
corresponds exactly to the line of the knee.

When we compare the length of the foot with
the leg, beginning from below upwards, we find a
regular proportion, and one of practical interest —
viz. that the line from the ground to the middle
of the patella usually measures twice the length of
the foot.

As a common measure of the height ot the
body, the foot does not give us a result that can be
expressed by an even number. From the numerous
researches of Leger on this question, the length of

The Foot. 163

the foot is generally contained 6^ times in the total
height. However, this number presents an interest-
ing fact when we express this proportion by taking
the third part of the foot for a unit ; 6 J feet forming
nineteen thirds of the foot, we see that the height
of the body contains nineteen thirds of the foot.
It is interesting to observe that the number 19 is
precisely that which expresses the proportion that
the middle finger bears to the height in the
Egyptian canon, according to Charles Blanc.

With regard to the foot itself, we need only say
that the tarso-metatarsal line offers, on the skeleton,
a simple means of dividing the foot. This line is
oblique from within outwards and backwards ; its
inner extremity at the base of the first metatarsal
bone divides the foot into an anterior and posterior
half, while its outer extremity, at the base of the
fifth metatarsal bone, divides it into a posterior
one-third and anterior Lwo-thirds.

1 64

CHAPTER XIV.

THE SKULL.

The bony structure of the head; division into cranium ■^ViAface. Study of
the vault, or skull-cap. Occipital bone. — Parietal bone (parietal
eminence and temporal ridge). — Frontal bone (frontal eminences, super-
ciliary ridges: nasal eminences: supra-orbital arches). — Temporal
bone : mastoid process ; zygomatic process. — Sutures of the skull :
sagittal suture ; lambdoid suture ; sphenoidal sutures. — General form of
skull : long heads ; round heads. — Cephalic indices ; dolichocephalic,
brachycephalic, and mesaticephalic skulls.

The skeleton of the head is formed of two parts
intimately united to each other : one above and
behind, formed for the most part of flat bones, simple
in form, and called the cranium, containing the brain :
the other below and in front, consisting of numerous
bones, complex in shape, and constituting the bony
structure of the face. The facial bones form the
boundaries of the cavities which lodge the principal
organs of sense and the apparatus of mastication.

The cran'mm. — The cranium forms an Qgg-
shaned box with its lono^ axis directed from before
backwards. It may be examined from its base,
which we need not study here, or from above or
from the side. The bones which enter into its
construction are eight in number; viz. the sphenoid
in the base and side wall, the occipital behind, the
frontal in front, the two parietal above, and the
two temporal bones on the sides.

The occipital bone (3. Fig. 56) forms the whole
posterior part of the base and vault of the skull.

The Skull.

I6S

The bone possesses two distinct parts, inferior and
superior. The inferior part is more or less hori-
zontal, and is pierced by a large foramen {foramen
magmini) through which the cavity of the cranium

Fig. 56.

The Skull (lateral surface). — i, frontal bone; — 2, parietal; — 3, occipital; —
4, temporal ; — 5, the great wing of the sphenoid ; — 6, coronal suture ;— 7,
lambdoidal sutiure ; — 8, 9, parieto-temporal suture; — 10, spheno-parietal suture —
II, spheno-temporal suture; — 12, fronto-sphenoidal suture; — 13, curved line
limiting the temporal fossa; — 14, 15, 16, malar bone; — 18, the superior maxillary
bone, with the infra-orbital foramen (19); — 20, 21, 22, the bones of the nose; — 23,
the lachrymal groove ; — 24, the nasal eminence ;— 25, the inferior maxillary bone ;
— 26, the mental foramen ;— 27, the angle of the jaw.

communicates with that of the vertebral canal. In
front of this foramen is the basilar process of the
occipital bone ; upon each side are the occipital
co7idyles, by which the skull articulates with the
vertebral column — namely, with the lateral masses
of the atlas (pp. 31,32), The superior part (3, Fig. 56),
called the squamous or shell-shaped portion of the
bone, is more or less triangular in form, with the

1 66 Artistic Anatomy.

apex directed upwards. Its borders are hollowed
out into numerous irregular denticulations^ which
work in with similar denticulations on the posterior
borders of the parietal bones (7, Fig. 56) ; and
assist in' forming the lanihdoidal suture. The
external or posterior surface is crossed about its
middle by a semicircular crest {the superior curved
lines) of which the centre forms a prominence called
the external occipital protuberance. This prominence
is placed below the most projecting point of the back
of the skull. The superior curved lines separate the
outer or posterior surface of the occipital bone into
an upper smooth part, belonging to the vault, which
is covered by the scalp, and a lower rough surface, to
which the muscles of the neck are attached.

T\\Q parietal \>Q)XiQ's> (2 and 13, Fig. 56) are placed
on each side of the vault of the skull in front of the
occipital bone. Quadrilateral in shape, each bone
presents four denticulated borders, of which the
superior articulates with the parietal of the opposite
side, the posterior with the occipital (7, Fig. 56),
the anterior with the frontal (6), and the inferior,
which is concave (8, Fig. 56), with the temporal
and (slightly) with the sphenoid bone. The parietal
bone presents two points for notice on its external
surface— I, near its centre a projection called the
parietal eminence^ better marked in young subjects
than in the adult, which represents the place where
the ossification of the bone commences ; 2, below this
prominence a curved line, the temporal ridge, slightly
rough (13, Fig. 56), which limits the temporal fossa
and gives attachment to the temporal fascia.

The frontal bone, a single bone (i, Fig. 56), like

The Skull.

167

the occipital, presents, like it, a vertical and a
horizontal part. The latter belongs to the base of
the skull and to the face (9, 9, Fig. 57), and forms
the roof of the cavity of the orbit (see below). The
vertical part forms the anterior and superior wall

Fig. 57-

Frontal Bone (anterior surface). — i, the frontal eminences; — 2, 2, super-
ciliary ridges; — 3, nasal eminences; — 4, 4, supra-orbital notches; — 5, 5, 6, 6,
internal and external angular processes ;— 7, 7, nasal notches ; — 8, nasal spine ; —
9, 9, orbital plates ; — 11, the superior border; — 12, the lateral borders.

of the cranium. It has a rounded superior border
(II, Fig. 57) which articulates by its denticulated
edge with the parietal bones and forms the coronal
suture (6, Fig. 56). The anterior superficial
surface forms the forehead, and upon it we have
to notice the following points : — i, the frojital
eminences (i, i. Fig. 57), better marked in young
subjects and in females than in the adult male ; 2,

i68 Artistic Anatomy.

below these, the superciliary ridges (2, 2, Fig^ 57),
which are directed obhquely downwards and in-
wards, to end in two prominent bosses called the
7iasal eminences. These prominences are best
marked in the adult, and owe their prominence
to the fact that the thickness of the bone is hol-
lowed out in this situation into two cavities called
the frontal sinuses, which become more developed
as the subject advances in age ; 3, at the lower
border of this part of the bone are the supra-orbital
arches (4, 4, Fig. 57), at the margin of the orbit.
Curved, with the concavity downwards, each of these
arches forms on the outer side an exteryial angular
process (6, 6, Fig. 57), w^hich articulates with the
malar, or cheek-bone (15, Fig. 56), and on the inner
side an internal angular process (5, 5, Fig. 57) which
articulates with the nasal process of the upper jaw.
Betw^een the two internal angular processes is a
median rough space called the nasal notch (7, Fig.
57), into which are received the nasal bones {22,
Fig- 5 6)' Each supra-orbital arch presents, at the
junction of its middle and inner thirds, a small notch
called the supra-orbital notch (Fig. 57).

The tefnporal bones, one on each side of the skull
(4, II, and 31, Fig. 56), are very complex in shape,
but we shall study here only one portion. Each
temporal bone is composed of two parts, one belong-
ing to the base, and another belonging to the lateral
wall of the skull ; the part belonging to the base
forming a pyramidal mass of very dense bone, called
the petrous portion, which contains the delicate
organs of the internal ear ; while the part belonging
to the lateral wall of the skull (4, Fig. 56) rises up

The Skull, 169

as an irregular osseous disc from the base of the
petrous portion of the bone. An orifice, the external
auditory meatus which leads into the petrous bone,
is found about its centre (31, Fig. 56). Taking this
orifice of the auditory canal as a centre, we find on
the external surface of the temporal bone — i, behind
the auditory canal the rnastoid portion of the bone
(33, Fig. 56), which articulates with the parietal and
occipital bones, and is prolonged downwards as a
conical process in the shape of a nipple {fjLaaT6<;, a
nipple) called the mastoid process; 2, above the
auditory canal, the squamous portion of the temporal
hone (4, Fig. 56), a shell-like bone with a rounded
border articulating with the inferior border of the
parietal bone (8, Fig. 56). In front is a process (20,
Fig. 58) which is directed horizontally towards the
face and joins the malar bone (16, Fig. 56). This
process, connecting the cranium with the face, is
called the zygomatic process (^^709; a yoke), and it
forms with the corresponding part of the malar bone
the zygomatic arch. The zygomatic process rises
from the temporal bone by two roots (Fig. 57), of
which one sweeps backwards above the orifice of
the external auditory canal and helps to form the
temporal ridge ; the other extends as a rounded
ridge transversely inwards towards the base of
the skull, and as the eminentia articularis,
forms the anterior limit of the glenoid cavity , into
which the condyle of the lower jaw is received.
Finally, below the auditory canal, the temporal
bone gives origin to the styloid process (32, Fig.
56), long and slender, which gives attachment to
certain ligaments and muscles oif the neck.

170 Artistic Anatomy.

The sphenoid bone is one of the most important
in the construction of the cranium, although as it
chiefly occupies the middle of the base of the skull,
it is not very obvious on the surface. It is the great
wing of the sphenoid bone which assists in the
formation of the temporal fossa.

The bones of the cranium articulate with one
another by denticulated borders, to which the name
of sutures is given. As the artist needs to study the
skull not only with regard to its superficial form, but
also as an object which figures frequently as an
accessory in still-life compositions, and as a true
representation of these sutures contributes to give
to the skull its exact physiognomy, we must not
leave the subject without carefully pointing them
out. It is necessary for our purpose to examine the
skull on its upper and its lateral surfaces.

The upper surface of the skull presents a suture
in the middle line, antero-posterior and inter-parietal,
called the sagittal suture. Behind, on a level with
the superior angle of the occipital bone (7, Fig. 56),
this median suture becomes continuous with the
occipito-parietal suture to which the name of the
lambdoid suture is given- because it resembles
the form of a Greek lambda (y\). In front, the
sagittal suture is met by the parieto-frontal suture
(6, Fig. 56), which forms a curved line, to which
has been given the name of the coronal suture.

On examining the skull on one of its lateral
surfaces, we see that the sutures form in this situation
a more complex design, because of the articulations
of the bones entering into the formation of the
temporal fossa (5, 10, 11, 12, Fig. 56). This fossa is

The Skull. 171

formed by the parietal, squamous portion of the
temporal, frontal, and great wing of the sphenoid
bones. It is limited : below by the zygomatic arch
(malar and temporal), and above by the curved
line of the temporal ridge, which marks the temporal,
parietal, and frontal bones. The suture formed
within the fossa, at a point called the pterion, is
roughly H or K-shaped, and is occasioned by the
contiguous articulations of the parietal, sphenoid,
frontal, and squamous portion of the temporal bones.

We have said that the general form of the
skull is egg-shaped, with its greater extremity
behind. It is, however, a common observation
that the skull may differ remarkably from what
may be termed the normal shape. It may be
excessively high, or low ; excessively prolonged
backwards or forwards, or the reverse. One of
the best-marked and constant variations is in
the ratio of width to length, from which the
cephalic index is derived. This may be an in-
dividual peculiarity : for instance, of two brothers,
one may be round-headed, the other long-headed.
Or it may be a racial character: for example, the
black races are long-headed, the yellow races are
round-headed, and the white races have a cephalic
index which may be one or the other, or inter-
mediate between the two extremes.

The cephalic index (index of breadth of the
skull) is an important term in physical anthro-
pology.

As we have previously explained, respecting the
proportions of the arm and forearm (brachial index j
page 100), we understand by the name of index the

1/2 Artistic Anatomy.

number which indicates the proportion between a
short and a greater length, the latter being con-
sidered as equal to loo — that is to say, the figures
obtained by direct measurement being reduced to
a decimal proportion. We find that in certain
skulls the transverse diameter is relatively very
short, seeing that it is represented by an index
of 75 or less ; and such skulls are known as dolicho-
cephalic (BoXl^o^, lengthened ; KecpaXt], head). Others
present a transverse diameter which approaches
the antero-posterior, since it is represented by an
index of 80 or more, the antero-posterior measure-
ment being 100. This cephalic index of 80 or
more is called hr achy cephalic {fipayv'^, short). Be-
tween these two types are the heads of intermediate
form called mesaticephalic, of which the cephalic
index is from 75 to 80. The importance of dolicho-
cephalic, mesaticephalic, and brachycephalic types
of skull in relation to racial characters has no
doubt been exaggerated ; but the fact remains that
certain races are dolichocephalic, and that certain
other races are brachycephalic. A greater difficulty
arises in regard to mesaticephalic skulls, which are,
after all, in a sense only "averages," and which,
occurring as they do so commonly in the Indo-
European race, suggest that either they are due
to individual peculiarity or to the mingling of racial
characters — in either case weakening the value of
skull measuiements in the investigation of races.

W3

CHAPTER XV.

THE FACE.

The bony structure of the face. — Orbital cavities: margins; cavities. —
Nasal fossce : anterior orifice. — Prominence of the cheek ; malar bone
and its processes. — Upper jaw. — Lower jaw ; body ; ramus ; sigmoid
notch, coronoid process, and condyle : variations with age. — The teeth ;
parts; names (incisors, canines, premolars, molars), number; relative
dimensions of incisors. — Articulation of the lower jaw, — The face
and skull as a whole with regard to form. — Facial angle of Camper ;
its measure ; its proper value according to race ; its exaggeration in
the antique. — Proportions: the head as a common measure: law of
eight heads ; variations according to the height of the individual ;
point which corresponds to the middle of the body.

The Face. — Instead of describing the bones of the
face separately we will group them together around
the cavities which they circumscribe and the
prominences which they form. We will therefore
study successively the cavity of the orbit, the orifice
of the nasal fossce y the prominence of the cheek-bone,
and, lastly, the region of the mouth, along with which
we will describe the teeth, the lower jaw, and its
articulation with the base of the skull.

The orbits. — The orbits are two cavities situated
symmetrically one on each side of the upper portion
of the face below the forehead. Each of these
cavities is formed like a pyramid with four sides,
of which the apex penetrates backwards towards the
cranial cavity, and of which the base, turned forwards,
forms the orbital opening. This opening, or orbital
margin^ is of quadrilateral form with rounded angles
(Fig. 58), limited by an internal border (7) and an
external border, both almost vertical, by a superior

174

Artistic Anatomy.

border (3) and an inferior border, both oblique, from

above downwards and outwards.

The superior border is formed by the supra-orbital

arch of the frontal bone (3, Fig. 58) previously

described, which pre-
sents the supra-orbital
notch; the inferior
border is formed by the
superior fnaxillary and
malar bones ; a little
below its centre is a
hole, called the infra-
orbital foramen (9, Fig.
58), which is placed in
the upper jaw almost in
the same vertical line as
the supra-orbital notch
above the orbit (page
168). The internal
border is formed by
the junction of the in-
ternal angular process
of the frontal bone with
the ascending (nasal)
process of the superior
maxilla (Figs. 56 and
58). Behind the inferior
part of this border is a
deep groove, called the
nasO'laclirymal groove
accommodation of the
tears), which is the

Fig. 58.

Tjie Bony Structure of the Face. —
I, the frontal bone; — 2, the nasal emin-
ence;— 3, supra-orbital notch; — 4, the
optic foramen ; — 5, the sphenoidal fis-
sure ; — 6, the spheno-maxillary fissure ;
— 7, the lachrymal groove ; — 8, the parti-
tion and opening of the nasal fossae ; — 9,
the infra-orbital foramen ; — 10, the malar
bone; — 11, the symphysis of the jaw; —
12, the mental foramen; — 13, the ramus
of the lower jaw ; — 14, the parietal bone ;
— 15, the coronal suture; — 16, the tem-
poral bone; — 17, the temporo-parietal
suture ; — 18, the great wing of the
sphenoid ; — 19, the origin of the temporal
ridge ;— 20, the zygomatic arch; — 21, the
mastoid process.

(7, Fig- 58),
lachrymal sac

commencement

for
(for
of a

the
the

ca»nal (iiaso-lachrymal canal)

The Face, 175

connecting the orbit with the corresponding nasal
fossa, and serving to transmit the nasal duct. Finally,
the external border is formed by the junction of the
external angular process of the frontal with the
superior process of the malar bone, or bone of the
cheek (10, Fig. 58 ; 14 and 15, Fig. 56).

The cavity of the orbit has for its walls the
osseous plates belonging to the frontal (superior wall)
and the several bones of the face we have previously
mentioned when describing the orbital opening. We
need not enter here into the description of these
surfaces and of the several special bones which com-
pose them. We shall only say that the internal wall
is directed from before backwards, while the external
wall is oblique, from behind forwards and from with-
out inwards. We note, lastly, at the deepest part
(towards the apex) of the cavity, three apertures, by
which the orbit communicates with deeper cavities ;
first, a circular orifice called the optic foramen
(4, Fig. 58) ; then, on the outer side of these, two
fissures directed outwards, one obliquely upwards
(sphenoidal fissure, 5, Fig. 58), and the other
obliquely downwards (spheno-maxillary fissure,
6, Fig. 58). The two first communicate with the
cranial cavity ; the last-named fissure leads into the
spheno-maxillary fossa.

The orifice of the nasal fossoe (8, Fig. 58) is
situated in the middle of the face below the level
of the orbits. It is somewhat heart-shaped (with the
base downwards) ; it is bounded below by the two
superior maxillary bones which unite in the middle
line and form the anterior nasal spine, upon the sides
by the same bones, and above by the two small

1/6 Artistic Anatomy.

nasal bones (Fig. 56, page 165) wedged in on each
side of the middle hne between the nasal processes
of the maxillary bones, and articulating above with
the nasal notch of the frontal bone.

Below, and to the outer side of each orbit, is the
prominence of the cheek formed by the malar hone
(10, Fig. 58). This bone is formed like a star with
four rays. The superior or orbital process (15, Fig.
56) joins the external angular process of the frontal
bone; the anterior process (17, Fig. 56) forms with
the superior maxillary the inferior boundary of the
orbit ; \hQ posterior or zygomatic process (16, Fig. 56)
is directed backwards to form by its union with the
zygomatic process of the temporal bone, the zygo-
matic arch'; the iiiferior angle is reduced to a pro-
minent margin which joins with the body of the bone
to form the prominence of the cheek. This prominence
is due to the projection of a malar process of the
upper jaw on which the malar bone is fitted.

There remain now only two bones to examine on
the skeleton of the face — namely, the two bones which
bound the cavity of the mouth and support the teeth:
these are the superior and inferior maxillary or jaw-
bones. The superior maxillary hone (18, Fig. 56) has
been in a great measure described already in relation
to the orbital and nasal openings. The following
points remain to be noticed : i. The external surface
is divided by a ridge descending from the malar pro-
cess, into two surfaces — one outer, belonging to the
zygomatic fossa, and the other anterior, appearing on
the face. The facial surface is again subdivided into
two smaller fossae — the canine fossa , in which occurs
the infra-orbital foramen, and the incisive fossa, dhoYQ

The Face.

177

the incisor teeth — by a ridge (the canine ridge) whicli
is formed by the prominent fang of the canine tooth.
2. The inferior or alveolar border presents a series of
cavities for the lodgment of the roots of the upper
teeth. The presence of these cavities is marked on
the surface of the alveolar border by a series of pro-
minences separated
by depressions corre-
sponding to the par-
titions between the
alveoh.

The inferior maxil-
lary bone or mandible
(Fig. 59) requires
more detailed con-
sideration than the
other bones of the
face, as it takes so
direct a share in the
surface form that we
may say that all the
details of its shape are marked in the configuration
of the chin and lower parts of the cheeks. It is
originally composed of two distinct halves, one right
and one left, which are joined together in early life
in the middle line of the chin to form the symphysis
of the chin, or mental process (11, Fig. 58). It is
sufficient to describe one of these halves as we see
it in a side view of the skull (Fig. 56).

We see that each half is formed of two strong
osseous plates joined together at an angle more or
less approaching a right angle, of which the promin-
ence directed downwards and backwards is called

Fig. 59.

The Inferior Maxillary Bone (side
view). — I, the body of the inferior maxillary
bone and its external oblique line; — 2, the
ramus ; — 3, the symphysis of the chin ; — 4, the
mental foramen ;— 8, the angle of the jaw ; —
10, coronoid process; — 11, the condyle; — 12,
sigmoid notch ;— I, incisor teeth;— c, canine
tooth ; — &, bicuspid ; — w, molar teeth.

M

lyS Artistic Anatomy.

the angle of the jaw. The horizontal portion of the bone
is called the body ; the vertical portion is the rafnus.

The ramus consists of a flat external surface,
which is continued below into the body of the bone
(2, Fig. 59). Its posterior border is thick, and is con-
tinued downwards to the angle of the jaw. The
anterior border, which is thinner, is grooved, and ter-
minates by joining below the upper alveolar border
of the body of the bone. The borders of the groove
join the oblique lines on the surfaces of the body of
the bone. The superior border is divided by a deep
notch {sigmoid notch, 12, Fig. 59) into two very
prominent parts. The posterior prominence is
thick, and forms the neck, surmounted by the
articular head, or condyle, of the jaw (11, Fig. 59),
for articulation with the temporal bone ; the
anterior prominence is in the form of a triangular
plate, and bears the name of the coronoid process
(10, Fig. 59) ; it gives insertion to the temporal
and masseter muscles.

The body of the lower jaw extends from the
angle to the symphysis of the chin (3, Fig. 59) ; it
has an external surface marked by an oblique line,
above which is an orifice (12, Fig. 58; and 4,
Fig. 59) called the mental forameri, placed in the
same vertical line as the supra-orbital notch and
the infra-orbital foramen. It is situated about the
level of the second premolar tooth. The inferior
border of the bone is thick and rounded ; its superior
alveolar border presents sockets for the teeth, and ex-
ternally a series of prominences and depressions corre-
sponding to the alveoli and the intervals between them.

The character of the lower jaw changes with

The Face. 179

age ; in the infant, the angle is very obtuse and
but shghtly prominent : in the adult it becomes
almost a right angle : in the aged the form of the
jaw is changed by the loss of the teeth and by
the absorption of the alveolar border, causing a
diminution of height in the body of the bone.
In order, therefore, to bring the two jaws in contact
with one another, the lower jaw requires to move
strongly forwards and upwards, whence occurs a
characteristic prominence of the chin in the aged,
which seems to project upwards and forwards to
meet the prominence of the nose.

The teeth of the adult are altogether thirty-two
in number — eight in each lateral half of each jaw.
Each tooth is composed of a part fixed in the
alveolar cavity called the root^ and a free part
called the crown. The form of the crown permits
the division of the teeth into four distinct classes,
which in each half of the jaw are arranged in the
following manner, beginning from the median
line: — Two incisors (I, Fig. 59), one canine {c,
Fig. 59), two premolars, or bicuspids [b, Fig. 59),
and three molars [m, Fig. 59)— total, eight. Situated
at the most external and posterior portion of the
dental arch, the premolar and molar teeth are
hidden by the cheeks, and we need only mention
that they are characterised by a crown formed
of numerous tubercles (two for the premolars,
four or five for the molar teeth). On the other
hand, the canine and incisor teeth are easily seen
when the lips are separated. The canine teeth are
characterised by a conical crown with a sharp ex-
tremity, which is very large and prominent in the

i8o Artistic Anatomy.

carnivora — e.g.^ in the dog (whence the name of
canines). The incisors present a crown flattened
from before backwards, and rectangular in form
(square). Their relative size is so constant that it
should be stated here. The two largest are the
median incisors of the upper jaw ; next in order
come the lateral incisors of the upper jaw, then
the lower lateral, and finally the lower median
incisors, which are the smallest. The lower in-
cisors, besides being smaller, are characterised by
their chisel-like cutting edge, which is bevelled at
the expense of the outer surface.

The articulation of the lower jaw with the skull,
or temporo-maxillary articulation , is formed by the
articulation of the condyle of the jaw (ii, Fig. 59 ;
and 29, Fig. 56) with the glenoid cavity of the
temporal bone — a cavity placed in front of the
external auditory meatus, and behind the articula?
eminence — the transverse root of the zygomatic pro-
cess (page 169). This glenoid cavity ^ together with
the articular eminence, is lined with cartilage, and
is separated from the condyle of the jaw by an
inter-articular fibro-cartilage. These structures are
enclosed in a fibrous capsule which surrounds the
articulation, and is strengthened on the outer side
by a stout external lateral ligament, attached
obliquely from a tubercle at the root of the zygoma
downwards and backwards to the outer side of the
condyle of the jaw. Therefore, when the jaw is
depressed by a movement of rotation of the man-
dibular condyle upon its axis, this external lateral
ligament is made tense, and draws the condyle
forward, causing it to leave the glenoid cavity and

The Face.

i8i

come in contact with the articular eminence. Thus,
when the mouth is widely opened (the lower jaw
being greatly depressed) there is a displacement of
the condyle of the jaw forwards, which is easily
seen in thin subjects, and which should be noted
here with its own particular mechanism.

The face, as a whole, presents a special interest

Fig. 6o.

The Measurement of the Facial Angle (goniometer applied to a skull).
—I, the inferior horizontal plane of the goniometer;— 2, movable piece with a pin
introduced into the auditory meatus -,—4, graduated circle ;— 5, the oblique plane
attached below by a hinge to the horizontal ;— 6, the rack for placing the bar (7)
on the prominent part of the forehead.

when we compare its configuration with that of
the cranium, in various individuals and races. In
general, the more prominent the skeleton of the
face the less the cranium (the forehead) is developed.
This was the idea of Camper, a Dutch anatomist and
artist, about the middle of the eighteenth century.

Camper proposed to measure the relative pro-
portions of the cranium and face by the angle which
the plane of the profile of the face makes with that
of the base of the skull. This facial angle has since

l82

Artistic Anatomy.

been the subject of much study on the part of
anatomists and anthropologists, who have modified
and perfected the process of measurement. It will
be sufficient here to show what Camper's idea was,
and that, apart from anatomical considerations, he
designed to furnish artists with a means of giving
character to the different physiognomies of men and

Fig. 6i.

The Facial Angle of a Skull of the Caucasian Race (after Camper). —
a b and c d, the lines which mark this angle (see the text) ; — i, the auditory
meatus; — 2, anterior nasal spine ; — 3, the most prominent part of the forehead.

animals. This angle is determined by two planes
(upon a head seen in profile, by two lines) : one
plane, which we may call horizontal, proceeds from
the external auditory meatus to the anterior nasal
spine, and corresponds to the inferior border of the
orifice of the nasal fossa (i. Fig. 60 ; and a, b, Fig. 61) ;
the other, directed obliquely upwards and backwards,
is at a tangent below to the prominence of the incisor
teeth, and above to the most prominent part of the
forehead (c, d, Fig. 61). Fig. 60 gives an idea of the
apparatus with which we measure the facial angle
at tlie present day. It represents the facial goni-

The Face. ' 183

ometer of Jacquart. The mode of measurement here
differs from that employed by Camper, in that the
inferior or horizontal plane passes forward not by the
nasal spine, but by the prominence of the incisor teeth.
Figures 61 and 62, which are reproduced from
those of Camper, show on the one hand that while
the facial angle is never equal to a right angle, it
approaches to it in the best types of the white race.

:..,.6

Fig. 62.

The Facial Angle of a Negro (after Camper). The figures are the same

as in the preceding.

The ancients sought by an exaggeration to idealise
the profile of the human face, and by increasing the
fulness of the forehead they have given to heads of
gods and heroes a facial angle as large as ninety
degrees (Fig. 63). These figures show, also; the
decrease of the facial angle in proportion as we pass
firom the white to the yellow and black races : — " The
angle which the facial line or characteristic line of
the visage makes," said Camper, ^^ varies from seventy
to eighty degrees in the human species. All who
raise it higher disobey the rules of art (from imitation
of the antique) ; all who bring it lower fall into the

1 84

Artistic Anatomy.

likeness of the monkeys. If I cause the facial hne
to fall in front I have an antique head ; if I incline it
backwards I have the head of a negro ; if I cause it
to inchne still further I have the head of a monkey ;
inclined still more, I have that of a dog ; and, lastly,

that of a
goose."^ The
figures which
explain these
ideas are as
follows : — The
facial angle of
Camper averages
80 degrees in
the Caucasian
race ; 75 degrees
in the yellow, or
Mongol ; 60 to
70 degrees in the
Negro ; 31 de-^
grees in the great monkeys (gorilla) ; lastly, 25 de-
grees in the head of a Newfoundland dog.

Fig. 63.

The Facial Angle of an Antique Head (Apollo
Belvedere)— (Camper).

In our study of the various segments of the limbs
we have seen that some of them have been chosen,
in different systems of measurement, to serve as a
common measure for these limbs, and for the entire
body. Thus we have spoken of the canons which
respectively take as- a unit the hand (contained
about ten times in the height of the body), the

* Pierre Camper. " Dissertations sur les differences riilles que pre.
sentent les traits du visage chez les hommes de differents pays et de
cUfterent ages." (CEuvresposthumes. Paris, 1786.)

The Face. 185

foot (contained a little more than six times in the
total height), the middle finger (contained nineteen
times), &c., &c. It is true, also, that the head —
ix.j the vertical distance from its summit to the
base of the chin — may be taken also as a common
measure. This was done long ago. Vitruvius,
speaking of the proportions of the human body,
states that the height of the head should be the
eighth part of the whole ^u

body. Leonardo da Vinci^ A--^ — ""^^^

Albert Diirer, and J. Cousin ■'^"\} \,

have followed the rule of tt..^^..HtO^^..<^,'r'^
the Latin author ; and the ''^^^^t^^^"/
law which makes the head ^n^.^" _^-/

the eighth of the total fig. 64.

height has for a long time the facial angle of a monkey.
past become classic in all (Camper.)

the schools. The choice of the head as a unit seems
sufficiently justified by the two facts that, on the one
hand, in every representation of the human body the
head is always visible, and forms a part distinct
from the rest of the body, and that, admitting that
it makes the eighth part of the height, this number
is particularly convenient, not being too great ; and,
on the other hand, it is divisible by two. In this
respect it offers, for example, a great advantage over
that of nineteen, which represents the proportion
of the middle finger to the height.

Gerdy, who has adopted the law of eight heads,
divides the height of the body in the following way :
the first division comprises the head itself; the
second extends from the chin to the level of the
nipples ; the third from the nipples to the umbilicus ;

1 86

Artistic Anatomy.

the fourth from the umbiHcus to the symphysis pubis ;
the fifth from the pubis to the middle of the thigh ;
the sixth from the thigh to the knee ; the seventh
from the knee to the middle of the leg ; and, lastly,
the eighth, from the middle of the
leg to the sole of the foot (Fig. 65).

The face itself can further be sub-
divided into subordinate parts. The
classical method of subdivision is to
say that the head is the length of
four noses : one from the top of the
head to the top of the forehead (hair),
one each for the forehead and nose,
and one for the part below the nose.
This is generally, however, incorrect.
It is better to divide the face into two
portions across the equators of the
eyeballs ; and subdivide the lower
half into two, for the greater part of
the nose above, and the lips, mouth,
and chin below.

Now, if we submit to experiment
the system of the law of eight heads,
we see that it is accurate only in subjects of great
height — for those who attain seventy-four inches
and over ; below seventy-two inches the subjects
do not measure more than seven and a half, or only
seven times the height of their head. In fact, the
height of the head is a quantity which varies very
little according to the subject ; it is on the average, as
an absolute measurement, from 8| to 9 inches, and
the variations which this value may present do not
range below 8J inches or above 9 inches. A subject

Fig. 65.

Outline of the
Human Body (and
proportions).

The Face. 187

who measures eight heads is very tall (9 x 8 = 72,
equal, or superior, to ']2 inches) ; and a subject
who only measures seven heads is of short stature
(8| X 7 = 61, equal, or more frequently exceeding,
61 inches).

This difference in the number of heads that the
body measures in relation to absolute height seems
more interesting than the narrow theory which
would assign strictly the length of eight heads to
each human figure. This absolute system does not
agree with that which observation proves correct.
Besides, it would be an error to suppose that the
ancient sculptors would be slaves to such a system
of proportions, since we find in their works precisely
the same variations that we do in nature. The
Gladiator, it is true, measures eight heads ; but at
the first glance at this chef d'oeuvre we have the im-
pression of a subject of great stature — of a man tall
and spare. The Apollo and the Laocoon measure
only 7I, and the Antinous only 7^ heads.

The variations in height are almost solely caused
by the greater or lesser length of the lower limbs.
Whether the subject be tall or short, the trunk (with
the head and neck) varies comparatively little ; but
the thighs and legs make the differences of length.
Regarding the diversity that we meet with in this
question, we see that Gerdy himself has not been
exact in indicating the points where the lengths of the
head begin and terminate which divide the lower
limb, the middle of the thigh, and the lower part of
the knee ; those points are badly defined, especially
as he does not indicate precisely the superior ex-
tremity of the thigh. But the looseness and con-

1 88 Artistic Anatomy.

tradiction becomes still more evident when we come
to seek, according to the various authors, the inter-
section between the fourth and fifth head ; that is to
say, the middle of the body. Without speaking of
the singular inconsistency of Vitruvius, who places
the middle of the body at the level of the navel, we
will note only this fact, that for the passage from the
fourth head to the fifth some take the pubis, others
some other point.

The centre of height falls lower as the stature
of the subject is increased. In subjects of small
stature the centre of height corresponds to the
symphysis of the pubis ; for those of middle height
and over, it falls about half an inch below the pubis.
But it may be situated at a still lower level, and
the artists of antiquity have frequently placed it
much lower. In fact, as Professor Sappey says, the
taller the stature, the more the centre of the body
tends to fall below the symphysis, and the figiu"es of
heroes and gods are of tall stature.

We will say, then, in conclusion : i, that the
head, compared with the height, is shorter as the
height increases ; 2, that to produce a human figure,
the absolute dimensions of which would give the
impression of a subject of short stature, it would be
necessary to give it about 7^ heads, and to cause the
centre of the body to fall on the symphysis pubis ;
while to produce a figure to give the impression of
tall stature it would be necessary to give it 8 heads,
and to place the centre of the body more or less
below the symphysis pubis.

i89

^anttlr ^art

MUSCLES AND MOVEMENTS.

CHAPTER XVI.

PECTORAL AND ABDOMINAL MUSCLES.

Of muscles in general. — Mnscular contraction ; changes of form ; move-
ments produced. Composition of muscles ; fleshy belly and tendon ;
aponeurosis. Nomenclature of muscles, their classification into long,
broad, and short muscles ; their arrangement : superficial and deep.
Muscles of the trunk, anterior region. — Great pectoral muscle^ its
relation to the armpit, its action. — The lesser pectoral. — The breast and
nipple. — The external oblique muscle of the abdomen^ its fleshy part
its abdominal aponeurosis ; linea alba. — Groove and space bounded by
the prominence of the external oblique and rectus. — Internal oblique
and transversalis muscles. — Rectus abdominis muscle, its aponeurotic
sheath, its aponeurotic intersections. — Linea semilunaris ; linece trans-
versce.

The form ot the body is produced largely by the
muscles. Each muscle is formed of a peculiar tissue
called muscular tissue or muscular fibre, which
has the property of changing its form and of con-
tracting under the influence of nervous action, in
most cases controlled by the will. For example,
in contracting the biceps muscle on the front of
the arm, we see that this muscle, which in a
state of repose is fusiform and long, becomes in
action (in contraction) short, thick, and rounded ;
and as it is attached below to one of the bones
of the forearm, it draws the anterior surface of

I90

A R T/S TIC A NA TOM V.

the forearm towards the anterior surface of the
upper arm and produces flexion of the elbow-joint.
This simple experiment, which is easy to repeat
at any moment, gives a clear idea of the part
which muscles play in the animal economy, and

of the part that they take
in producing the external
form ; for it shows that
they are the active agents
of movements in which the
bones are the passive levers,
and, at the same time, that
a muscle in action presents
a very different shape from
that which it has in a state
of repose, a change which
may be stated in a more
general manner by saying
that in action a muscle
becomes shorter, thicker,
and more prominent.
In general, besides their fleshy mass, the only
part which contracts and changes its form, the
muscles have extremities more or less slender
called tendons, formed of a white fibrous tissue,
which are, as it were, actual cords by which the
muscle is attached to the bones ; during the con-
traction of muscle these tendons do not change
in form, but, as with all tight cords when in a
state of tension, they start up, and become more
visible and clearly marked beneath the skin
(Fig. 66).

Each muscle is enveloped by a fibrous membrane

Fig. 66.

Diagram of a Contracted
Muscle (Biceps).

Pectoral and Abdominal Muscles, 191

called its aponeurosis, which frequently takes the
place of a tendon, if the muscle is broad and
thin, so that in these cases the attachment of the
muscle, instead of being rounded in the form of
a cord, is flattened in the form of a membrane,
and the term aponeurosis is at times applied to these
membranous tendons. Membranous tendons in the
contraction of a muscle give rise to depressions on
the surface of the body in the regions where they
occur superficially.

The muscles are variously named according to
various ideas ; sometimes from the region they
occupy {pectoral, gluteal, anterior brachial muscles,
&'c.) or from the direction of their fibres {oblique of
the abdomen), or from their dimensions {gluteus
maximuSy gluteus medius, and peroneus longuSy &c.),
or again from their form [trapezius, rhomboid,
serratus), or from their structure (semi-meinbranosus,
semi-tendinosus). Another mode of nomenclature,
which Chaussier attempted to make general, forms
the name of a muscle by the association of the names
of the bones to which it is attached ; in this way we
get the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, and most of the
muscles of the neck. This nomenclature, however,
cannot be easily applied to all muscles, for it would
make some names of an inconvenient length, owing
to the complexity of the bony attachments.

Before we terminate this rapid sketch it may be
useful, with regard to plastic anatomy, to point out
how the various muscles are classed, according to
their form and situation, ist. With regard to their
form we distinguish the muscles as long, broad, and
short ; the long muscles, consisting in general of a

192 Artistic Anatomy.

fleshy belly fusiform in shape, and with cord-like
tendons, are principally distributed among the great
segments of the limbs (arm, forearm, thigh, leg) ; the
broad muscles ^ with their fibres arranged in broad
and thin layers, and with tendons membranous and
aponeurotic, are almost exclusively found in the
trunk (pectorals, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, &c.) ;
lastly, the short muscles j frequently without tendons,
and inserted directly into the bone, are found
principally at the extremities of the limbs (hand and
foot) and in the face.

2nd. With regard to their situation we distinguish
the muscles as superficial and deep. The superficial
muscles (Fig. 6y) are those which are entirely visible
when the subject is stripped of its skin, and of which,
accordingly, the fleshy bellies and tendons are marked
in their principal details on the external form. These
superficial muscles should be carefully studied here
with regard to their insertions, forms, and actions.
The deep muscles^ situated beneath the preceding, form
fleshy masses, which are shown externally by the
manner in which they fill up the external depressions
of the skeleton, and raise up the superficial muscles.
It is enough for the artist to know the general indica-
tions of these muscular masses, without studying the
insertions and forms of each of the muscles com-
posing any given mass.

MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK.

Under this title we will now study the anterior
muscles of the trunk {pectoral and abdominal)^ and
the muscles of the back and the posterior surface of
the neck [trapezitis and latissimus dorsi). The study

Pectoral and Abdominal Muscles. 193

of the muscle which covers the lateral wall of the
chest {serratus magniis) will be taken after that of
the muscles of the shoulder and armpit.

Fig. 67.

General View of the Superficial Muscle (the Gladiator of Agasias with the
skin removed. Compare with Figure 4, page 24).

Great pectoral rnuscle. — The great pectoral
muscle {pectoralis major) forms a large fleshy mass
(i, Fig. 68) which covers the anterior surface of
the thorax, on each side of the middle line of the

N

194

Artistic Anatomy.

sternum, and extends outwards as far as the upper
part of the arm. This muscle is attached (ist) to
the inner half of the anterior border of the clavicle
(2, Fig. (i'^) ; (2nd); to the whole extent of the

HF^^"'^- rr

16 "

Fig. 68.

The Muscles of the Anterior Surface of the Thorax (to the right the
superficial muscles ; to the left the deep muscles). — i, the great pectoral muscle ; —
2, its clavicular fibres ; — 3, its costo-sternal fibres ; — 4, 5, 6, its origin from the apo-
neurosis of the abdomen ; — 7, its external portion formed by the superposition of
the preceding fibres (9, bundles of fibres arising from the cartilages of the ribs ;
10, the pectoralis minor) ; — 11, the subclavius ; — 12, the deltoid ; — 14, the digitations
of the serratus magnus ; — 15, the digitations of the external oblique of the abdomen ;
— 16, anterior border of the latissimus dorsi, and (17) tendon of the same ;— 18,
teres major muscle; — 19, the subscapularis ; — 20, the long head of the triceps
brachialis; 21, the humeral extremity of the deltoid; 22, 22, the sterno-cleido-
mastoid ; — 23, the stemo-hyoid ; — 24, the trapezius muscle.

anterior surface of the sternum (3, Fig. 68) ; and
(3rd), to the aponeurosis of the external oblique
muscle of the abdomen. It arises, also, more
deeply from the cartilages of the true ribs (except

Pectoral and Abdominal Muscles, 195

the first) (9, 9, 9, Fig. 68). From these thoracic
origins the muscular fibres are directed towards
the arm ; the upper fibres pass obhquely from
above downwards and outwards ; the middle fibres
pass transversely outwards, and the inferior, ob-
liquely from below upwards. Towards the insertion
of the muscle these different parts cross over each
other in a twisted form, so that the upper (clavi-
cular) fibres are placed in front of the inferior
(sternal) fibres (7, Fig. 68), which correspond to
the anterior margin of the armpit. The muscle is
inserted into the outer lip of the bicipital groove
of the humerus, the clavicular fibres, known as the
portio attollens, being inserted lower down the
arm than the external fibres {portio deprimens).
The former fibres raise the arm upwards, the latter
draw it downwards in relation to the trunk.

When the arm is hanging beside the trunk the
great pectoral muscle presents a four-sided square,
in which we can distinguish four borders : one
supero-external (in contact with the anterior border
of the deltoid, 12, Fig. 6%)^ another superior, in
the line of the clavicle ; the third, internal or
sternal, curved with its convexity inwards ; and the
fourth, infero-external or axillary (forming the
anterior boundary of the armpit). But when the
arm is horizontal, and especially when it is raised
above the horizontal (Fig. 70), the figure of the
muscle is represented by a triangle with the base
inwards, as the clavicular and supero-external
borders then come into line with one another.

The action of the great pectoral muscle is
essentially to draw the arm to the trunk ; its

ig6

Artistic Anatomy,

shape becomes prominent when we carry the arms
forward and bring them near each other, as in
the attitude of prayer. It also becomes well
marked in climbing, for then the muscle takes its
fixed point at the humerus and draws the trunk

towards it. Acting in a
similar manner upon the
thorax, with the humerus
as a fixed point, this muscle
elevates the ribs, and con-
sequently expands the
thorax in respiration. Thus
we see that the muscle con-
tracts when the inspiratory
muscular powers are brought
into play as in movements
like struggling, anguish, or
agony.

The breast and nipple. —
On the surface of the great
pectoral muscle is placed
the breast in the female. In the male only the
nipple and surrounding areola are found, usually
occupying a position at the level of the space
between the fourth and fifth ribs on each side.
The form of the breast varies in the female with
age. In a young woman it is normally round
and firm, with its lower aspect more rounded
than its upper surface, which is slightly flatter
(in the erect position) (Fig. 69).

The great pectoral muscle conceals under its middle
third a smaller muscle, the lesser pectoral (10,
Fig. (:i'^)y which, arising from the third, fourth, and

Fig. 69.
Outline of the Female Breast

The Muscles of the Anterior Wall of the Trunk. — i, 2, 3, the great pec-
toral ; — 4, 4, the external oblique cf the abdomen ; — 5, 5, the serratus magnus ;— 6, 6,
the anterior border of the latissimus dorsi ; — 7,8, the inferior portion of the sternum;—
9, the aponeurosis of the external oblique ; — 10, linea alba ; — 11, umbili. us; — 12,12,12,
the tendinous intersections of the rectus abdominis ; — 13, the inguinal ring ; - 14, the
pyramidalis of the abdomen ; — 15, the external border of the rectus abdominis ; — 16,
the sterno-hyoid;— 17, the omo-hyoid; — 18, ' terno-cleido-mastoid; — 19, the trapezius;
— 20, the deltoid ; — 21, the biceps brachialis ; — 22, the pectineus ; — 23, the sartorius;
— 24, the rectus femoris ; — 25, the tensor of the fascia lata : — :6. the adductors.

198 Artistic Anatomy.

fifth ribs, is directed upwards and outwards, to
be attached to the coracoid process of the
scapula. This muscle serves to move the
scapula by drawing its upper part downwards
and forwards. Its outer border becomes obvious
when the arm is raised above the head,
along the axillary border of the great pectoral
muscle.

The external obliqice 7nuscle of the abdomen, —
The external oblique muscle of the abdomen (Figs.
d'^ and 70) forms a large sheet half fleshy, half
aponeurotic, which covers the lateral and anterior
surfaces of the abdomen. The fleshy portion,
which forms the outer half of the muscle, is
attached to the external surfaces of the lower eight
ribs, firom which it arises by angular slips or
digit ati on s, interlacing with those of the serratus
magnus and latissimus dorsi muscles (15, Fig. 68,
and Fig. 74). From these costal origins the fibres
are carried forwards and downwards ; the posterior
fibres pass vertically downwards to be attached
to the iliac crest (Fig. 74) ; the others are directed
obliquely downwards and forwards, to give origin
to a broad membranous tendon (9, Fig. 70) called
the aponeurosis of the external oblique fnuscle.
The fibres of this aponeurosis, continuing in the
original direction of the muscular fibres, pass in
front of the rectus muscle of the abdomen (12
and 15, Fig. 70), where, joining the subjacent
aponeuroses of the internal oblique and transversalis
muscles, and interlacing with the aponeurotic fibres
of the opposite side, it fonns a long median raphe,
called the li7iea alba of the abdo7ne7i, proceeding

Abdominal Muscles. 199

from the xiphoid cartilage to the symphysis pubis
(10, Fig. 70).

It is important, with regard to external form,
to define the direction of the line at which the
aponeurotic fibres of the external oblique succeed
to the fleshy fibres (Fig. 70). This line descends
at first vertically from its origin at the inferior
angle of the great pectoral muscle, but its lower part
inclines abruptly outwards (4, Fig. 70), towards the
anterior superior iliac spine, describing a curve with
its convexity downwards and inwards. This line
marks the prominence of the anterior or internal
border of the muscular fibres ; and as, on the other
hand, the rectus abdominis muscle forms, by its
outer border, another curved line (linea semihcnaris),
which is at first vertical but inclines inwards below
(15, Fig. 70), it follows that this part of the
anterior surface of the abdomen is traversed by a
narrow vertical groove which opens out below
into a large triangular space. This triangular space,
bounded above and on the outer side by the
external oblique muscle, and on the inner side by
the semilunar hne of the rectus, is limited below
by the fold of the groin, or Poupart's ligament^ the
line at which the aponeurosis of the external
oblique becomes attached to the fascia lata of the
thigh (page iii). In the male this part of the
aponeurosis of the external oblique is perforated
just above the inner end of Poupart's hgament (13,
Fig. 70) by the spermatic cord, which passes
obhquely downwards and inwards in the inner part
of the groin.

The external oblique muscle draws the ribs down-

200

Artistic Anatomy.

—11

Fig. 71.

The Muscles of the Abdomen (the superficial on the right side, the deep on
the left). — I, the external oblique ; — 2, 2, the serratus magnus ; — 3, 3, the aponeurosis
of the external oblique ;— 4, the umbilicus; — 5, 6, the linea alba; 7, the crural arch
or Poupart's ligament ;— 8, the inguinal ling ;— 9, pectoralis major ; — 10, latissimus
dorsi ;^ii, u, the rectus abdominis; — 13, the anterior portion of its sheath ; — 14,
the pyramidaUs ; — 15, 15, the internal oblique of the abdomen ; — 16, the inferior
portion of the aponeurosis of the external oblique turned downwards ; —18, the
upper part of the thigh covered by its aponeurotic envel®pe ; — 19, a section of the
external oblique of the abdomen.

wards and forwards. If the two muscles of that
name (that of the right and that of the left side)
contract at the same time they bend the body for-
ward ; but when one muscle only — e,g., that of
the right side — contracts it imparts to the trunk a
movement ot rotation to the left or opposite side.

Abdominal Muscles.

201

Fig. 72.

The Muscles of the Back. — i, trapezius; — 2, its vertebral origin ; — 3, acro-
mion process; — 4, Latissimus dorsi; — 5, deltoid; — 6, infra-spinatus ;— 7, obliquus
externus ;— 8, gluteus medius ; — 9, gluteus maximus ; — 10, levator anguli scapulae;
— II, rhomboid minor; — 12, rhomboid major; — 13, splenius ; — 14, transversalis
cervicis ; — 15, vertebral aponeurosis; — 16, serratus posticus inferior ;— 17, supra-
spinatus ; — 18, infra-spinatus ; — 19, teres minor; — 20, teres major; — 21, triceps; —
22, serratus magnus ; — 23, obliquus internus.

Generally speaking, whenever we make any great
effort the oblique muscles of the abdomen contract,
and their prominences, especially the costal digita-

202 Artistic Anatomy.

tions and the anterior borders of the muscks, become
clearly marked.

The external oblique muscle covers two other
muscular layers, which are, passing from without
inwards, the mternal, oblique (15, Fig. 71) and trans-
versalis muscles. The internal oblique muscle is
formed by fibres which arise from the fascia of the
loin, the crest of the iHum, and Poupart's ligament.
They radiate forwards and for the most part upwards
(Fig. 71) to become attached, the superior fibres to
the lower six ribs, while the middle and inferior fibres
are continued in front as an aponeurosis, or broad
flat tendon. The aponeurosis soon becomes united,
partly, with that of the external oblique and that
of the transversalis beneath. This aponeurosis splits
to enclose the rectus abdominis muscle and con-
stitute the sheath of the rectus. The transversalis
muscle is formed by fibres directed horizontally, and
it terminates in firont in an aponeurosis which passes
for the most part behind the rectus abdominis, to
blend with the aponeurosis of the internal oblique
muscle and assist in the formation of the sheath of
the rectus abdominis.

The rectus abdominis (11, 11, Fig. 71). — This
muscle forms a long, broad, fleshy band on each
side of the linea alba, which occupies the middle
line of the abdomen. Extending from the epigastric
pit to the pubis, it is attached above at its base,
which is its widest part, to the cartilages of the
fifth, sixth, and seventh ribs, and to the ensiform
cartilage, and below, at its apex, or narrowest part,
by a double tendon to the crest and spine of the
pubis. The muscle presents, with regard to form.

Abdominal Muscles, 203

several remarkable peculiarities. ist. It is en-
closed in a fibrous sheath, formed in front by
the aponeuroses of the external and internal oblique
muscles (16; Fig. 71), and behind by the aponeu-
roses of the internal oblique and transversalis ; so
that in the subject stripped of its skin its shape
is half concealed by the aponeurotic lamina which
passes in front of it (Fig. 70 and the right half of
Fig. 71). 2nd. It is not formed of fleshy fibres
proceeding without interruption from the costal
cartilages to the pubis, but it is crossed by aponeu-
rotic intersections (Figs. 70, 71), the linecB trans-
verses, at the level of which the fleshy fibres are
replaced by short tendinous fibres. These aponeu-
rotic intersections are usually three in number, the
most inferior being placed at the level of the
umbilicus (4, Fig. 71), the other two higher up —
one at the level of the ninth rib, the other at the
level of the seventh. These intersections adhere to
the anterior wall of the sheath of the muscle, and as
the muscle is thinner at their level each line is
marked on the surface by a transverse groove.
3rd. The portion of the muscle below the level of
the umbilicus does not present any aponeurotic inter-
section, but it rapidly diminishes in breadth from the
umbilicus to the pubis, so that the outer border of the
muscle slopes from above downwards and inwards.
To this arrangement is due the fact, upon which
we have already dwelt (page 199), that the narrow
groove bounded by the external oblique and the
rectus muscles spreads out below the umbilicus into
a broad, triangular surface, which is bounded below
by the fold of the groin

204 ^ ^ T/S TIC A NA TOM Y.

The rectus muscle flexes the trunk ; that is, it
depresses the thorax and brings it nearer the pubis
— a movement which it accomphshes by the flexion
of the vertebral column.

The lower part of the rectus muscle is covered by
the pyramidalis muscle (14, Fig. 71), of which the
contour does not show beneath the skin in the supra-
pubic region, as the skin here is always padded by a
cushion of fat. This pyramidalis muscle, which is
only pointed out here in order that it may be re-
membered, forms on each side of the middle line a
small fleshy triangle, of which the base is attached to
the pubis, and the apex forms a short tendon which
is inserted into the linea alba, the median fibrous
raphd resulting from the interlacing of the aponeu-
roses of the oblique and transversalis muscles of the
abdominal wall

205

CHAPTER XVII.

MUSCLES OF THE BACK.

Trapezius, attachments and surface form. — Latissimus dorsi. — Deep
muscles visible in relation to the trapezius and latissimus dorsi —
T, lateral region of neck {splenius and coinplexus muscles) ; 2, region of
the scapula {rhomboid, infraspinatus, teres major and teres minor
muscles). — Deep muscles which are wholly concealed : erector spina:,
etc.

The most superficial muscles of the back are the
trapezius and the latissimus dorsi. They form two
broad muscular sheets which cover over the whole of
the back and the posterior part of the neck, and
extend also to the shoulder and arm.

Trapezius mitscLe, — The trapezius muscle has the
following attachments. Its origin is fi'om the middle
line of the back, from the inner third of the superior
curved line of the occipital bone (13, Fig. 73), the
fibrous band of the ligamentum niichcE between the
occipital protuberance and the spinous process of the
seventh cervical vertebra, and from the spinous pro-
cesses of the seventh cervical and of all the thoracic
vertebrae. From these origins the muscular fibres are
carried outward and converge towards the shoulder,
the intermediate fibres passing transversely, the
superior obliquely downwards (9, Fig. 74), and the
inferior fibres obliquely upwards. The muscle is in-
serted into the shoulder girdle, to the superior border
of the spine of the scapula (Fig. ']'^y the inner edge
of the acromion process, and the outer third of the

2o6 Artistic Anatomy.

posterior border of the clavicle (19, Fig. 70; 7—13,

Fig- 73)-

With regard to external form the trapezius muscle

presents this remarkable fact, that in certain regions
the muscular fibres are replaced by aponeurotic
fibres or tendons, so that in these regions the
muscle is thinner and in contraction shows slightly
depressed surfaces. These regions are three in
number : i. At the lower part of the neck and
the upper part of the back (10, Fig. 73), opposite
the level of the seventh cervical spine, the fibres
of origin of the muscle are aponeurotic, and form
with those of the opposite side a lozenge-shaped
or elliptical surface with its long diameter vertical,
in the centre of which the spinous processes of
the sixth and seventh cervical and first thoracic
vertebrae form more or less well-marked projec-
tions. 2. At the lower part of the back, at the
level of the last thoracic vertebras, the fibres of
origin of the trapezius are also aponeurotic, in a
small triangular space ; and in the living model,
when the trapezius is strongly contracted, its
lower angle seems hollowed out, because at that
level the muscular fibres are wanting, and in
consequence do not swell up when the muscle is
in action. 3. At the level of the root of the
s]")ine of the scapula, the inferior fibres of the
trapezius form at their insertion a small triangular
aponeurosis which glides on the bone, and gives rise
to a distinct depression at that spot during the
contraction of the muscle.

Action of the trapezius, — When the shoulder
is strongly drawn backwards the whole of the

Muscles of the Back.

207

\-i

Fig. 73.

The Superficial Muscles of the Back. — i, The liimbo-sacral aponeurosis; —
2, the latissimus dorsi ; — 3, its iliac fasciculus ; — 4, the space which separates it from
the external oblique ;— 5, the upper portion of the latissimus dorsi ; — 6, 6, the teres
major muscle ; — 7 , the lower portion of the trapezius, with its aponeurotic portion
(8) on a level with the spine of the scapula ; — 9, the central portion of the trapezius,
with its aponeurosis (10); — 11, 12, 13, the upper portion of the trapezius ; — 15, the
occipito-frontalis muscle ; — 16, the stemo-cleido-mastoid ; — 17, the splenius capitis ;
— 18, the deltoid; — 19, the infraspinatus; — 20, the teres minor; — 21,21, the external
head, and 22, 22, internal head of the triceps brachialis ; — 23, the posterior portion
of the external oblique of the abdomen; — 24, 24, the gluteus m&ximus.

2oS Artistic Anatomy.

trapezius contracts, and in this case it is the
middle portion, of which the fibres are directed
horizontally, which shows most prominently be-
neath the skin. More frequently, however, differ-
ent parts of the muscle contract separately ; thus
the superior fibres act, either by taking the
shoulder as a fixed point, and bending the head
to the corresponding side (as when the face is
slightly turned to the opposite side), or by taking
their fixed point at the occipital and the cervi-
cal origin, and thus raising and supporting the
scapula, as when a burden is carried on the
shoulder. Under those circumstances the cervical
border of the trapezius, that which proceeds from
the occipital bone to the clavicle (Fig. 74),
becomes prominent in a line nearly parallel to
that of the outer border of the sterno-cleido-
mastoid {26, Fig. 74) ; and between these two
prominent lines appears a groove (the posterior
triarigle of the neck), to which we will return in
dealing with the deep muscles of this region.
Lastly, if the inferior fibres of the trapezius con-
tract alone, they draw the shoulder downwards, and
thus we see them become prominent whenever the
model causes a dragging with his upper limbs from
above downward, e,g., in the case of a bell-ringer who
pulls violently and with all his weight on a rope.

The two trapezius muscles (right and left)
form together (Fig. jo,) a rhomboidal figure with
its apex below, which resembles the contour of a
monk's hood. Hence the trapezius has been
called by anatomists and artists the cucullary
muscle {cucUlluSy a hood).

Muscles of the Back. 209

Latissimus dor si muscle (i, 2, 3, 5, Fig. 73). —
This forms a large, somewhat triangular muscular
sheet extending from the region of the loins to the
upper part of the arm. It arises by means of a
broad triangular aponeurosis [vertebral aponeurosis,
I, Fig. 73) from the spinous processes of the lower
six thoracic vertebrae, from the spinous processes
of the lumbar and sacral vertebrae and the posterior
third of the crest of the ilium (3, Fig. 73) ; the
muscular fibres converge from this origin towards
the armpit, and the muscle obtains additional origins
at its borders. At the outer border of the muscle,
three or four fleshy bands join it which arise from
the outer surfaces of the last three or four ribs
by slips which interdigitate with the fibres of the
external oblique muscle of the abdomen (4, 4,
Fig. 74). At its upper border, as it crosses the inferior
angle of the scapula, the muscle receives a narrow
slip of origin fi*om this part of the shoulder-blade.
From these origins the muscular fibres are directed
upwards and outwards, and converge so as to form a
fleshy layer (5, Fig. 73) which, passing over the
inferior angle of the scapula and along its axillary
border, winds round the teres major muscle (see later),
and over the posterior wall of the armpit to reach
the upper part of the shaft of the humerus, in
which it is inserted by a broad tendon, attached
to the floor of the bicipital groove of the humerus
(page 61).

This muscle acts first of all like the lower part

of the trapezius, but w^ith more energy. It, further,

not only depresses the scapula, but also acts on

the humerus. It is the contraction of the latissimus

o

2IO Artistic Anatomy.

dorsi which enables us to bring the arm with force to
the side, carrying the upper hmb shghtly backwards,
so that if the contraction is carried very far the
arms become crossed behind the back. Indeed, the
latissimus dorsi may be called the swimmer's or
Gfolfer's muscle. It draws the humerus backwards
behind the trunk, and at the same time rotates
the arm-bone and the whole limb inwards. The
prominence formed by the outer border of the
latissimus dorsi during contraction (Fig. 74) is
principally shown when the muscle accomplishes
a powerful effort, such as dragging, or pulling from
above downwards, as in pulling on a rope hanging
vertically, or in hanging by the arms from a hori-
zontal bar. If in this situation — in the exercise of
the trapeze, for example — the model raises himself,
and brings the trunk near the bar, the latissimi dorsi
muscles become very prominent, for then they take
their fixed points at the arms, and act on the trunk
by carrying it upwards and forwards.

Among the numerous deep muscles of the back
there are not any which are visible on the surface
throughout their entire extent, but there are many
which appear in part in the spaces which limit
the borders of the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, and
superficial muscles of the shoulder and neck. These
spaces are three in number, one at the side of the
neck, one at the level of the lower half of the
scapula, and a third over the iliac crest.

The posterior triangle is the name given to the
space on the lateral surface of the neck, bounded
(Figs. 75 and 74) behind by the supero-anterior
border of the trapezius, and in front by the pos-

Muscles of the Back. 211

tenor border of the sterno-cleido-mastoid. This
space forms a long and superficial groove, extend-
ing from the occipital region to the middle of
the clavicle. It has a lower part (25, Fig. 74),
covered over by the platysma myoides muscle of
the neck (to which we will return later), and a
superior part, in which parts of one or two
powerful muscles of the neck are found, ist.
The muscular fibres which we see (17, Fig. 73)
directed obliquely from below upwards and out-
wards towards the mastoid process belong to the
splenius capitis muscle, which arises from the
spinous processes of the last cervical and upper
four or five thoracic vertebrae, and ascends obliquely
outwards to be attached to the mastoid process
of the temporal bone beneath the sterno-cleido-
mastoid (16, Fig. 73). 2nd. A small fleshy triangle,
which may appear above the splenius, at the apex
of the posterior triangle, corresponds to a part of a
powerful muscle of the neck, called the complextcs,
which may or may not be completely concealed
by the trapezius muscle. It is always responsible
for the surface form of the neck, and, along with
the other deep muscles, appears as a prominent
ridge on each side of the groove formed by the
edge of the ligamentum nuchae.

The space situated in the back at the level of
the lower part of the scapula is triangular in
form (Figs. 73 and 74). When the arm is hang-
ing beside the trunk the borders of the space
are seen to be as follows : Externally, the vertebral
border of the scapula ; above and internally, the
lower edge of the trapezius ; and below, the upper

212 Artistic Anatomy.

edge of the latissimus dorsi. In the floor of the
space the greater rhomboid muscle is seen ; while
external to the triangle are the prominences of
the muscles covering the lower part of the dorsal
surface of the scapula, the infraspinatus, teres
minor, and teres major muscles.

The greater rhomboid muscle (rhomboideus
major) arises from the spinous processes of the
seventh cervical and upper four or five thoracic
vertebrae ; its fibres are directed obliquely down-
wards and outwards, to be inserted into the verte-
bral border of the scapula. It is only the lower
fibres which become superficial, behind the vertebral
border of the scapula.

The infraspinatus muscle (19, Fig. 73) rises
firom the infraspinous fossa of the scapula. From
this origin its fibres ascend and, converging beneath
the deltoid (Fig. 74), are inserted by a short
tendon into the great tuberosity of the humerus.

The teres minor muscle (20, Fig. 'j'^ rises from
the upper part of the thick border of the infra-
spinous fossa on the axillary border of the scapula,
and ascends along the edge of the infraspinatus
and beneath the deltoid, to be inserted into the
lowest of three facets on the great tuberosity of
the humerus.

The teres inajor (6, Fig. ^2>y ^^^ ^> ^^%' 74)
arises from the lower part of the broad axillary
border of the infraspinous fossa ; it extends up-
wards and outwards hke the preceding muscles,
but it soon leaves the teres minor (5, Fig. 75).
Instead of remaining at the posterior part of the
shoulder it passes beneath the deltoid, and accom-

Muscles of the Back. 213

panics the latissimus dorsi muscle (Figs. 17, 18 ;
Fig. ()%) to the front of the long head of the
triceps, and is finally inserted into the inner lip of
the bicipital groove of the humerus. The long
head of the triceps is found, therefore, passing
between the teres minor, behind, and the upper
part of the teres major, in front (Fig. 73, between
20 and 6).

These muscles become more visible and promi-
nent when the arm is raised and arrives at
the horizontal position (see the right side of
Fi§- li)' The space between the edge of the
trapezius and the border of the scapular spine
above, and the latissimus dorsi below, becomes
much lengthened from within outwards, and the
deltoid leaves uncovered a greater extent of the infra-
spinatus, teres major and teres minor muscles ; at the
same time the scapula, by the elevation of the arm
(page 64), being moved so that its inferior angle is
drawn away from the vertebral column, a greater
part of the rhomboid muscle becomes apparent
between the outer border of the trapezius and the
upper border of the latissimus dorsi.

Although the other deep muscles of the back
are not visible on the subject stripped of its skin,
we must not leave the region without giving a
few of the names of the powerful fleshy masses
which occupy the lumbar region, on each side
of the spinous processes, and form two power-
ful muscular columns, causing a prominence be-
neath the aponeurosis of the latissimus dorsi
(Fig. 73). This mass is formed by muscles in
the loin which are closely blended together

214 Artistic Anatomy.

below, and constitute the erector spince. At the
lower level of the thorax it separates into an
external muscle called the ilio-costalis, which is
attached by a series of tendons to the angles
of the ribS; and an internal muscle called the
longissimiis dorsi, which, by a series of tendons,
is attached to the ribs and to the transverse
processes of the thoracic vertebrae. These muscles
are continued through the upper part of the back
and the neck by means of smaller slips which
need not be particularised. The action of the
erector spinse and its several parts is to straighten
the trunk, and maintain it when a burden is
borne on the shoulders or back. It is for this
reason that their common mass in the lower part
of the back is so developed in men who usually
carry heavy loads on the shoulders, and forms
that powerful muscular mass of the loins, of
which the prominence is visible beneath the skin
and the aponeurosis of the latissimus dorsi (i,
Fig- 7^)' I^ the neck, as already stated, the
complexiLS is the most important of the deep
muscles in giving rise to the fonii and contour
of this region.

215

CHAPTER XVIII.

MUSCLES OF THE SHOULDER AND ARMPIT.

The deltoid ; its form, thickness, actions. — Muscular form of the shoulder
as a whole. — The deeper muscles [supraspinatus and subscapularis). —
Serratus inagnus muscle : its relation to the armpit, its costal digitations ;
its action in movements of the arm. — Forms of the region of the armpit ;
prominence of the coraco-hrachialis muscle ; relations of the biceps and
triceps to the armpit.

The upper and outer part of the prominence of
the shoulder is formed by a single powerful muscle,
called the deltoid. Beneath this are several deep
muscles which fill up the fossae of the scapula
{supraspinatus, infraspinatus j and subscapularis).
But when the arm is raised and maintained in
the horizontal position, the surface below the root
of the arm dips into a cavity or pit, correspond-
ing to the external prominence of the shoulder ;
this cavity, called the armpit^ or axilla, has for
a roof the skeleton of the shoulder covered by
the deltoid, and for its walls — in front, the
pectoral muscles, which adjoin the anterior border
of the deltoid, and behind, the subscapularis and the
latissimus dorsi, separated from the posterior border
of the deltoid by the teres major muscle. On the
inner side is a muscle applied to the wall of the
thorax, the serratus magnus, and on the outer side
is the humerus, covered by the biceps and coraco-
brachialis muscles. Of the muscles which we have

2i6 Artistic Anatomy,

named, some have already been studied in relation to
the muscular structure of the trunk (great pectoral
and latissimus dorsi) ; of the others, we will study
the deltoid and serratus niagnuSj in relation to
the region of the shoulder and axilla.

Deltoid muscle, — This muscle is so called
because it resembles the Greek letter delta, and
is triangular in form ; it is short, broad, thick,
and shaped like half a cone to clasp the shoulder-
joint. It arises above from the outer third of the
anterior border of the clavicle (12, Fig. 6d>), from
the acromio-clavicular articulation, from the convex
border of the acromion, and from the entire extent
of the posterior border of the spine of the scapula
(18, Fig. 73). From this origin its fibres are
directed downwards, the middle fibres vertically,
the anterior or clavicular fibres downwards and
backwards, and the posterior fibres obliquely for-
wards, to be inserted into the external surface of
the humerus on a rough V-shaped groove, called
the deltoid impression (page 68).

This muscle is very thick, and is intersected
by a vertical series of strong fibrous bands or
septa, which may be seen as depressions beneath
the skin in the contracted muscle. The action of
the deltoid is to elevate the arm, separating it
from the trunk and supporting it in the horizontal
position ; but while the middle fibres raise the
arm directly outwards, the anterior fibres elevate
it and carry it forwards, and the posterior fibres
carry it backwards. It is necessary to remark
that this muscle is never at right angles to the
lever which it moves, but it always acts obliquely

Muscles of the Shoulder and Armpit. 217

J

Fig. 74.

The Superficial Musci-Es of the Shoulder and the Lateral Portion
OF THE Trunk. — i, the latissimus dorsi ; — 2, the lumbo-sacral aponeurosis; — 3, 4, 4,
the iliac and costal origins of the latissimus dorsi ; — 5, 6, 7, the upper portion of the
latissimus dorsi; — 8, the teres major; — 9, 10, 11, the trapezius; — 12, the infra-
spinatus;—13, the teres minor; — 14, 15, 16, the external oblique of the abdomen ;
— 17, 18, the anterior and interior border of the same muscle ; — 19, its inferior
internal angle rounded (see page 199) ; — 20, 20, serratus magnus ; — 21, the pectoralis
major; — 22, the gluteus maximus ; — 23, the tensor of the fascia lata; — 24, the
deltoid ; — 25, the platysma myoides ; — 26, the sterno-cleido-mastoid.

2i8 Artistic Anatomy.

on the humerus. Hence, although very thick, the
deltoid cannot act with great power ; therefore
the horizontal position of the arm produced by
the action of the muscle is one which requires
great effort and quickly produces fatigue. In
order to understand the unfavourable arrangement
of the deltoid with relation to its humeral lever,
it is sufficient to compare it with that which the
biceps presents relative to the forearm, and to see
that the biceps, which acts obliquely on the radius,
becomes perpendicular to that bone in proportion
as flexion is carried on in the arm ; and when
the elbow forms a right angle, the biceps muscle
is found in the most favourable condition to act
with all possible force. In other words, the greatest
inomentu7n of a muscle occurs when it is perpen-
dicular to its lever ; the deltoid muscle, therefore,
does not possess much momentum.

In pointing out the relations which the three
borders of the deltoid present, we summarise the
various details of the muscular contour of the shoul-
der : — I St. The superior border of the deltoid, by its
origin from the anterior border of the clavicle and the
posterior border of the spine of the scapula, repeats
the insertions of the trapezius, which is attached to
the opposite lip and border of the same bones (Fig.
74). The clavicle, acromion, and spine of the scapula
form a species of bony intersection between the
trapezius and deltoid, and when the muscles are con-
tracted produce a deep groove betw^een the insertion
of the trapezius and the origin of the deltoid. In
animals which have no clavicle, and in which the
spine of the scapula is not well developed, the fibres

Muscles of the Shoulder and Armpit. 219

of the deltoid and trapezius are directly continuous.
We observe an arrangement of this nature in the
horse, 2nd. The anterior border of the deltoid is
separated from the corresponding border of the great
pectoral muscle by a linear interval, very narrow
below, but a little broader above, where it forms a
small triangle, of which the base corresponds to the
middle of the clavicle (Fig. 70). This interval, which
becomes visible during the contraction of the two
muscles when we endeavour to raise the arm upwards
and forwards while it is held behind, as in the act of
drawing a load, gives passage to a vein called the
cephalic, and under such circumstances this vein
becomes prominent and swollen. 3rd. The posterior
border of the deltoid forms one of the sides of the
triangular space which we have studied in the region
of the back, at the level of the infraspinous fossa
(Figs. 73 and 74) ; and, under its posterior border,
pass successively on the one hand the infraspinatus
and teres minor muscles, which pass directly beneath
the deltoid, and on the other the teres major and
latissimus dorsi muscles, which pass more deeply, .
separated from the deltoid by the long head of the
triceps muscle (Fig. 75).

Two muscles of the shoulder remain to be men-
tioned which are not visible on the model, but must
at least be named in order to explain how the fossae
of the shoulder-blade are filled up. These are : — ist.
The supraspinatus muscle (11, Fig. 75;, which occu-
pies the supraspinous fossa of the scapula, passes
beneath the coraco-acromial arch, and is inserted into
the uppermost facet of the great tuberosity of the
humerus. 2nd. The infraspinatus muscle occupies

220 Artistic Anatomy.

the infraspinous fossa, and is partially concealed by
the latissimus dorsi, trapezius, and deltoid. It is
also bound down on the back of the scapula by a
strong membrane derived from the deep fascia. It
is inserted below the supraspinatus into the back
of the great tuberosity of the humerus. 3rd. The
sub scapular is muscle (19, Fig. 68) occupies the
subscapular fossa, and is inserted into the lesser
tuberosity of the humerus.

The serratus magnus muscle (14, Fig. ()'^\ 5, Fig.
70 ; 2, Fig. 71 ; 20, Fig. ^i). — This muscle, applied to
the lateral part of the thorax, is hidden throughout a
great part of its extent by the scapula and the muscles
of the chest and shoulder ; but it becomes superficial
at its lower part, in a series of prominent digitations
and muscular bands, which form very characteristic
features in the contour of the lateral region of the
thorax. At the same time, as the muscle constitutes
the inner wall of the armpit, we must describe it here
in detail.

The serratus magnus arises by nine fleshy shps
from the outer surfaces of the upper eight ribs (an
additional slip arising between the first and second
ribs). From this origin the muscle, which forms a
broad sheet, sweeps backwards round the ribs, to be
inserted into the whole length of the vertebral border
of the scapula. The five or six upper digitations of
the muscle are hidden by the great pectoral muscle
(21, Fig. 73), and only its three or four lowest digita-
tions are visible on the side of the thorax between
the borders of the great pectoral muscle in front and
the latissimus dorsi behind ; they interdigitate with
the upper slips of origin of the external oblique

Muscles of the Shoulder and Armpit. 221

muscle of the abdomen (20 and 16, Fig. 73). The
alternations of origin of the serratus magnus and
external oblique are seen when the muscle is con-
tracted, as when the arm is thrust forward. When
the arm is hanging loosely, or shghtly raised, we see
only three digitations of the serratus magnus ; but
when the arm is strongly elevated the great pectoral
frequently leaves another uncovered.

The action of this muscle is to fix the scapula,
drawing this bone downwards and forwards, while
the rhomboid, on the other hand, draws it upwards
and backwards. Fixation of the scapula being
necessary to afford a fixed point for the contraction
of the muscles of the arm (particularly the biceps),
it is easy to perceive that whenever the upper limb
accomplishes a powerful effort, the lower digitations
of the serratus magnus become clearly visible in
the living model, as in a sword-thrust, wrestling,
lifting from the ground a heavy body, or in pushing
back an adversary, &c.

The serratus magnus muscle forms the inner wall
of the armpit or axilla, a cavity of which the
anterior wall is represented by the pectoral muscles,
and the posterior wall by the subscapularis, teres
major, and latissimus dorsi. The cavity forms a
triangular pyramid; its summit, directed upwards,
corresponds in the skeleton to the interval between
the first rib, the clavicle, and the upper border of the
scapula. In a dissected subject this cavity is open
inferiorly, but in the living model it is closed by the
skin which forms the base of the pyramid, and which,
in passing from the outer border of the great
pectoral muscle to the border of the latissimus dorsi,

222 Artistic Anatomy,

is hollowed out so as to ascend in the space, into
which it is drawn by its attachment to the strong,
deep fascia of the axilla.

To complete the description of the axilla we must
say a few words concerning its boundaries, and the
folds which correspond to the lines of junction of its
walls. There is nothing more to add with regard
to its anterior limit (formed by the great pectoral
muscle) or its posterior limit (formed by the
latissimus dorsi and teres major muscles clothing the
axillary border of the scapula), but a word must be
said of the external limit of the space which
corresponds to the root of the arm. This is a
comparatively thick surface, and corresponds to the
upper part of the shaft of the humerus. The bone is
covered by two muscles which descend from the
scapula towards the anterior surface of the arm, — the
hiceps and coraco-brachialis, which we will notice
briefly. We will say, first of all, that the form of the
coraco-brachialis is clearly visible beneath the skin of
the armpit when the arm is strongly raised, as for
example in a subject crucified, when it raises the
depressed skin in the armpit. The skin is covered
with hair more or less abundant, according to the
individual, and it is a classic habit to omit this part
of the hairy system in every representation of an
elevated limb ; but the artist should be convinced by
the study of anatomy that he should never conform
to the habit of tracing on the skin of the hollow of
the armpit a fanciful contour, since this skin is
smooth and regularly depressed, and only on its
external part presents the fusiform muscular
prominence of the coraco-brachialis, on the inner side

Muscles of the Shoulder and Ai^mpit, 223

of the anterior surface of the arm. The biceps muscle
escapes from under cover of the great pectoral
muscle, and lies external to the coraco-brachialis
more on the front of the limb.

The triceps muscle of the arm, which, by its long
head, takes origin from the scapula, does not pass,
like the biceps and coraco-brachialis, through the
armpit, but appears behind it on the back of the
arm, since, as we have already said, it passes between
the teres minor posteriorly and the teres major and
latissimus dorsi anteriorly (Figs. ^^ and 75).

224

CHAPTER XIX.

MUSCLES OF THE ARM.

rst Anterior muscles : Biceps, its two heads ; its fusiform body ; its bifurca-
tion below (aponeurotic expansion and tendon) ; its action (supinator
and flexor of forearm) ; influence of its aponeurotic expansion on the
contour of the forearm. — Coraco-hrachialis, hrachialis anticus. 2nd.
Posterior muscle : Triceps hrachialis, its three portions, flat surface
formed by its inferior tendon ; general contour of the posterior surface
of the arm ; action of triceps. External form of the arm ; external and
internal intermuscular grooves.

The muscles of the arm form two distinct fleshy
masses, a mass in front formed by the biceps, which
occupies the entire length of the arm ; by the coraco-
hrachialis, which occupies only the upper part ; and
lastly, by the hrachialis anticus, which occupies the
lower part ; and a mass behind, formed by one
muscle only, the triceps.

The hiceps (12, Fig. 75, and 21, Fig. 70) is so
called because it possesses two heads of origin, which
are known by the names of the long and short heads.
The long head of the muscle presents the form of a
long tendon, which arises from the upper limit of the
glenoid cavity of the scapula, and descends through
the shoulder-joint and the bicipital groove of the
humerus to the arm. The short head of the biceps
has a less complex course, and arises from the summit
of the coracoid process, in common with the coraco-
brachialis.

These two tendons (long and short head) descend
in the outer wall of the axilla, covered by the great

Muscles of the Arm.

225

pectoral muscle (Fig. 70, page 197) ; a little above
the lower border of this muscle the fleshy fibres
appear and form
two cylindrical
bellies which de-
scend and be-
come united, at
the level of the
middle of the
anterior surface
of the arm, in one
mass, very marked in
muscular subjects (12,
Fig. 75). A short dis-
tance above the elbow-
joint, a flat tendon of
insertion succeeds to the
fleshy muscle ; it is at
first broad, but
divides into two
one aponeurotic,
the semilunar fascia of
the biceps ; the other, a
rounded tendon forming
the chief insertion of the
muscle. The aponeurotic
expansion (2, Fig. 'j^^ of
the bicipital fascia is
directed downwards and
inwards over the common
mass of the flexor muscles
of the forearm, and soon

soon
parts,
called

Fig. 75.
The Muscles of the Shoulder
AND Arm (seen from the externa]
side). — I, the triceps brachialis; — 2,
its Ions head ; — 3, its external head ; —
4, its attachment to the olecranon ; — 5,
the teres major; — 5', the teres minor ;
— 6, the infra-spinatus ; — 7, 8, 9, 10,
the deltoid ; — 11, the supra-spinatus ;
— 12, the biceps brachialis ; — 13, the
brachialis anticus ; — 14, the supinator longus ; — 15, extensor carpi radialis longior.

226 Artistic Anatomy.

becomes blended with the aponeurosis of the
forearm ; the tendon proper (3, Fig. 74) dips down
in the hollow of the elbow between the internal
and external muscles of the forearm, and is fixed
to the bicipital tubercle of the radius (page 78, and
Fig. 21), upon which it turns to be inserted into
the posterior part of the tubercle.

The biceps muscle is essentially the flexor of the
forearm on the arm. This action is evident, and
known to all, and it is useless to dwell on it, except
to recall the fact that the biceps, in acting on the
forearm, is inserted perpendicularly on the lever
which it moves, so that it is in the most favourable
position for the exercise of all its power. But the
contraction of the biceps produces along with flexion
of the elbow two other movements to which it is
important to direct attention, ist. If the forearm is
in pronation the tendon of the biceps is obviously
twisted round the upper part of the radius, since it is
inserted into the posterior part of the bicipital
tubercle ; the first effect produced, therefore, by its
contraction is a rotation of the radius outwards, and
a movement of supination ; the biceps is, therefore,
a supinator, and one of the most powerful. 2nd.
Besides flexion at the elbow-joint and this move-
ment of supination, the biceps muscle raises and
draws inwards the humerus by its action on the
shoulder-joint. The three separate movements are
found in association with one another in such a move-
ment as the act of raising the hand to the mouth.

During the contraction of the biceps, its aponeu-
rotic expansion is tightened, and binds down the
mass of the flexor muscles of the forearm over which

Muscles of the Arm. 227

it passes ; hence it marks on the inner surface of the
fleshy part of this portion of the hmb, two fingers'
breadth below the internal condyloid ridge, a distinct
furrow, during the contraction of the muscle.

The changes of form in the arm which
accompany the contraction of the biceps are well
known, and it is sufficient to recall the fact that the
fleshy belly of this fusiform muscle is lengthened in
the state of repose, becoming short and globular
during contraction. Nothing is more striking, nor
gives a better idea of the change of form in a muscle
during contraction, than to examine the biceps in
a model, who brings it gradually into action by
flexing the forearm on the arm (Fig. ^d). We
then see on the anterior surface of the arm a kind
of fleshy ball becoming more and more clearly
marked, which hardens and swells up at the same
time, so that it seems to mount up towards the
upper part of the arm, to the inferior border of
the great pectoral muscle.

The coraco-brachialis muscle forms a narrow
fusiform fleshy mass, which occupies the upper part
of the inner surface of the arm. It arises from the
coracoid process of the scapula (alongside the short
head of the biceps), and is inserted into the middle of
the internal border of the humerus. When the arm
is hanging loosely the lower half only of this muscle
is visible on the subject, and its prominence is
blended with that of the biceps, while its upper half
is hidden within the axillary space, beneath the
great pectoral muscle. It becomes visible beneath
the skin of the armpit, however, when the arms are
raised, as in the position on the cross, and we have

228

Artistic Anatomy.

already dwelt upon the contour which the fusiform
muscular belly of this muscle presents in the outer
wall of the axilla. When the coraco-brachialis
contracts, its form becomes more prominent, like
that of every muscle in contraction ; but it is not

B

Fig. 76.
A, the arm extended; B, the elbow flexed and the biceps contracted.

more visible on this account, for as it draws the arm
to the thorax against which it is applied, it conceals
by this movement the region in which its prominence
is marked.

The brachialis antiais muscle (13, Fig. 75, and
4, 4, Fig. yy), — Situated beneath the lower half of
the biceps, which it overlaps on each side, this muscle
is deeply placed, and covers the lower two-thirds of
the anterior surface of the humerus, to which it
is attached. The fleshy fibres descend almost to the
level of the elbow, where they are replaced by a flat

Muscles of the Arm 229

tendon, inserted into the front of the coronoid process
of the ulna. As the ulna does not exhibit any of
the lateral movements comprised in supination and
pronation, the brachialis anticus is simply a flexor of
the forearm, and when this movement is forcibly
accomplished, it may be seen to swell up on each
side of the lower part of the biceps.

Triceps muscle. — This muscle (21, 22, Fig. 73 ;
I, 2, 3, Fig. 75), which forms alone the entire
muscular structure of the posterior surface of the arm,
has been called the triceps because it arises by three
heads, separated above, united below ; one central
or median, called the long head, and two lateral
parts, distinguished as the external and internal
heads. The long head (2, Fig. 75), forming a
thick and fusiform fleshy belly, arises by a stout
tendon from the upper part of the axillary border
of the scapula immediately below the glenoid
cavity, and passes between the teres major and
teres minor muscles to the back of the arm
(page 223). At the level of the junction of the
middle with the lower third of the arm, the
fleshy belly terminates in a broad, flat tendon
(i. Figs. 75 and 'j'^) which forms the main inser-
tion of the muscle, and receives the insertions of
the two other portions of the muscle. The ex-
ternal head (3, Fig. 75) arises from the upper
part of the posterior surface of the humerus
(above and to the outer side of the spiral
groove), and is directed obliquely downwards and
inwards to be attached to the external border of
the main tendon almost as low down as the
elbow. Lastly, the internal head (22, Fig. 73)

230 Artistic Anatomy.

arises from the lower part of the posterior surface
of the humerus (below and to the inner side of
the spiral groove), and is attached to the internal
border and deep surface of the inferior common
tendon. This tendon is inserted (4, Fig. 75) into
the upper surface of the olecranon process of
the ulna, and on either side of this it blends
with the deep fascia of the forearm.

The form of the posterior surface of the arm is
greatly influenced by the presence of the inferior x
common tendon of the triceps, which, narrow and
pointed towards its upper end, forms a large flat
surface at the lower part of the arm. This flat
surface is overlapped on each side by the promin-
ence of the fleshy parts of the inner and outer
heads. Above, in the upper two-thirds of the
posterior surface of the arm, two fleshy bellies
may be seen side by side, an outer one formed
by the outer head, an inner one formed by the
long head of the muscle. The inner head, more
deeply placed, is only obvious in the lower third
of the arm. These various details — viz., the
tendinous flat surface above the olecranon, the
muscular prominences which bound it on each
side, and the two fleshy bellies which ascend
above it — become visible in a marked degree
when the subject forcibly extends the forearm
on the arm, as in struggling against any resistance
which causes the position of flexion to be main-
tained. It is hardly necessar}^ to say that the
triceps is essentially the extensor muscle of the fore-
arm on the arm.

It is not only for the purpose of a regular

Muscles of the Arm. 231

enumeration, but also with regard to the anato-
mical interpretation of their external forms, that
we have classed the muscles of the arm as anterior
and posterior. On each side of the arm at both
inner and outer borders, a groove runs which
separates the anterior from the posterior muscles.
In each of these grooves is a fibrous partition
called the internal and external intermuscular sep-
tum, which extends from the surface to the corre-
sponding supra-condyloid ridge of the humerus,
and serves to increase the area of muscular
attachment. In muscular contraction, therefore,
each septum or aponeurosis is slightly drawn
towards the humerus, and on the surface two
grooves are clearly seen, each corresponding to an
interval, internally or externally, between the
anterior and posterior muscles.

The internal groove commences at the inferior
extremity of the coraco-brachialis, and descends
almost to the inner condyle. Above it is faintly
marked, because the numerous nerves and vessels
surrounded by cellular tissue fill up the inter-
muscular space at this level ; below it spreads
out, and tends to be confounded with the form
of the internal part of the brachialis anticus.

The external groove (Fig. 75) is short. It
begins at the level of the lower extremity of the
deltoid, and does not descend to the external
condyle, because the highest muscles of the extensor
group belonging to the forearm arise from the
lower part of the outer border of the humerus,
so that the groove is filled up by these muscles as
they curve forwards towards the bend of the elbow.

232

CHAPTER XX.

MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM AND HAND.

Division into groups; — A. Anterior muscles of the forearm. Yhestiper/icial
muscles, or those arising front the inner condyle : pronator radii teres,
flexor carpi radialis, palmaris longus, and flexor carpi ulnaris. 2nd. The
deep muscles (flexors of the fingers and pronator quadratus). B. Posterior
muscles of the forearm. 1st. External muscles : supinator longus
(importance with regard to the forms of the external region of elbow) ;
the extensor carpi radialis, longior, and brevior ; the supinator radii brevis.
2nd. T\iG. posterior siiperjicial muscles : the extensor communis digi-
torum, extensor minimi digiti. extensor carpi ulnaris, and anconeus.

Muscles of the Forearm. — The two bones of the
forearm are covered by a series of muscles with
fleshy belhes, generally fusiform, terminating in-
teriorly in tendons which are frequently very long,
and become prominent in the region of the wrist.
Some of these muscles move the forearm on the
arm, or the radius on the ulna, but the action of the
greater number is to move the hand on the forearm
and the different segments of the fingers on each
other. These muscles are divided into five series,
each composed of four muscles, making the total
number of muscles in the arm twenty altogether.
We shall dwell chiefly upon the superficial muscles,
a short mention being sufficient for the deeper ones.
We distinguish first of all two groups, anterior
and posterior : one on the front, the other on the
back of the forearm. The anterior group is divis-
ible into : I St. An anterior superficial layer, of which

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand. 233

each muscle will be studied ; 2nd. An anterior deep
layer, to which we will briefly refer. The posterior
group may be subdivided into three : ist. An ex-
ternal layer ; 2nd. A superficial posterior layer,
which we must review in detail ; and 3rd. A pos-
terior deep layer, respecting which we shall only say
sufficient to enable the reader to understand the
shape of the wrist formed by the corresponding
tendons.

A. ANTERIOR MUSCLES OF THE FORE-
ARM, I. Anterior superficial muscles, — All these
muscles arise by a common tendon from the internal
condyle of the humerus; their common origin does
not appreciably extend above the level of the condyle,
so that at the inner sid<i: of the elbow, contrary to
what takes place on the outer side, the muscles of the
forearm do not ascend on the corresponding side of
the upper arm. If from the inner condyle we draw
four lines, of which the first goes towards the middle
of the radius, the second towards the outer border of
the wrist, the third towards the middle, and the fourth
towards the inner border of the wrist ; these four
lines, of which the first is very oblique and the others
gradually approach the vertical, will give us the direc-
tion of each of these tour anterior superficial muscles
of the forearm, which are, in the order of the lines,
from without inwards, the pronator radii teres, the
flexor carpi radialis, the palmaris longiis, and the
flexor carpi idnaris.

The pronator teres (6, Fig. ^^j) is fleshy through-
out the entire extent in which it is visible on the
model ; arising from the internal condyle, it is
directed obliquely downwards and outwards, and

234

Artistic Anatomy.

disappears beneath the external muscles of the
forearm (supinator longus) to be inserted into the

radius (around which it is
slightly twisted) in the middle
of its external surface (impres-
sion for the pronator teres,
page 78). Contracting, the
pronator teres turns the radius
forward and inwards, produc-
ing pronation. This muscle
forms the inner side, very-
oblique, of a triangular pit,
known as the hollow of the
elbow, of which the outer side
is formed by the supinator
longus (12, Fig. jj). In this
hollow the tendon of the
biceps dips down (3, Fig. yy)
along with the brachialis
anticus (4, 4, Fig. yy) to be
inserted into the bones of the
torearm. The upper part of
the pronator teres is crossed

Fig. yy. — The anterior Muscles of the
Left Forearm. — i, the biceps brachialis ;— 2,
its aponeurotic expansion ; — 3, its tendon ; — 4, 4,
brachialis anticus ; — 5, the internal head of the
triceps;— 6, pronator radii teres; — 7, flexor carpi
radialis ; — 8, 9, palmaris longus ; — 10, flexor
carpi ulnaris ; — 11, its attachment to the pisiform
bone ; — 12, 13, supinator longus ; — 14 and 15,
the extensor carpi radialis, longior, and brevior;
— 16, the r.bductor longus pollicis ; — 17, its ten-
don ; — 18, tendon of extensor longus pollicis ; —
19, 20, 21, the superficial flexor of the fingers and
its tendons ; — 22, tendons of the deep flexors ; —
23, 23, the lumbricales;— 24, abductor brevis
Fig. 77 . pollicis; — 26, flexor longus pollicis.

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand. 235

by the aponeurotic expansion of the biceps (2,
Fig. "ji), and we have already dwelt on the
particulars of external form which result from this
arrangement.

The flexor carpi radialis (7, Fig. "j"]^ arises from
the inner condyle by a fusiform fleshy belly
which descends obliquely to the middle of the
forearm. It is replaced by a narrow, strong tendon
which gains the outer part of the wrist, and then
disappears beneath the annular ligament of the
carpus, and, lymg in a groove on the anterior surface
of the trapezium, is inserted into the bases of the
metacarpal bones of the fore and middle fingers.
This muscle flexes the hand on the forearm ; when
it contracts, its tendon becomes very prominent and
raises the skin at the lower part of the front of the
forearm ; it forms the first tendinous prominence
that we meet at this level in passing from the
radial to the ulnar border, and lies just internal to the
groove in which the radial artery pulsates.

The palmar is longus (8, 9, Fig. yy) is much
smaller than the preceding muscle ; arising from the
internal condyle, it forms a short fusiform fleshy
belly (8) to which a long slender tendon succeeds.
Descending almost vertically to the middle of the
wrist, the tendon ends by being inserted into the
annular ligament of the carpus and the fascia of
the palm (9, Fig. yy). The palmaris longus flexes
the hand on the forearm, and its tendon forms in
contraction of the muscle a well-marked prominence
situated in the middle of the lower part of the front
of the forearm on the inner side of the tendon of the
flexor carpi radialis. In some subjects this muscle is

236 Artistic Anatomy.

absent, and it is frequently subject to variations

of form.

T\\Q flexor carpi ulnaris (10, 11, Fig. 77) arises
not only from the inner condyle, like the three
preceding muscles, but "also (18, Fig. 78) from the
posterior border of the ulna (including the olecranon)
process ; it descends vertically over the ulna, and is
inserted by tendinous and fleshy fibres into the
pisiform bone of the carpus (11, Fig. jy). As its
fleshy fibres continue down to its insertion the form
of the muscle is not marked by a prominence such as
those produced by the tendons of the preceding
muscles ; this muscle, therefore, helps to give a
rounded form to the whole extent of the inner
border of the forearm. It flexes the hand, and at
the same time draws it inwards towards the inner
side of the wrist.

II. Afiterior deep muscles. — These muscles con-
stitute a fleshy mass lying beneath the preceding
superficial muscles, and terminate near the wrist in
numerous tendons, which pass to the fingers ; the
tendons of the muscles appear to a slight extent on
the model in the grooves between the tendons of the
superficial muscles (19, 19, Fig. 77), Lower down
the tendons of these muscles lie in the anterior groove
of the carpus, bound down by the corresponding
annular ligament, and after traversing the hollow of
the palm of the hand, they are inserted into the
phalanges of the fingers, presenting characteristic
features which we will rapidly point out in the
enumeration of these muscles.

These deep muscles comprise, ist, the flexor
sublimis digitorum (19, Fig. 77^ j which divides

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand. 237

below into four tendons, one for each finger (except
the thumb) ; 2nd, the flexor profundus digitorum,
which also divides into four tendons, one for each
finger (except the thumb). On the anterior surface
of each finger, therefore, we see two tendons — one
superficial (22ij Fig. yy) and the other deep. The
first (flexor sublimis) presents at the level of the
first phalanx (20, Fig. yj) a slit or button-hole,
through which the second passes (flexor profundus) ;
owing to this arrangement the tendon of the deep
flexor is inserted into the base of the third phalanx
{22, Fig. yy) ; while the superficial flexor is inserted
into the base of the second phalanx (21, Fig. yy).
There is, indeed, a flexor muscle for each of the
phalanges ; the first phalanges of the fingers having
special flexors in addition, the small lumbricales
muscles of the palm of the hand, which arise from
the sides of the tendons of the flexor profundus
digitorum in the palm of the hand.

3rd. T\\Q flexor longiis pollicis {26, Fig. yy) arises
in the forearm from the radius, and its tendon is
inserted into the base of the second or last phalanx
of the thumb. It gives no evidence of its existence
on the surface. 4th. The pronator quadratiis muscle,
a quadrilateral fleshy muscle, is disposed in a different
manner to the preceding muscles, which must be
raised in order to see it. It is formed by transverse
fibres placed in the lower fourth of the forearm, and
it passes from the anterior surface of the ulna to that
of the radius. Its contraction produces pronation,
rotating the radius over the lower part of the shaft of
the ulna.

B. POSTERIOR MUSCLES OF THE

238 Artistic Anatomy.

FOREARM, I. External muscles. — These form
the fleshy mass which covers the lower third of the
outer border of the arm (Fig. 75, page 225) and de-
scends along the outer border of the radius in the
forearm. The group comprises four muscles — the
supinator longus {brachio-radialis)j two radial ex-
tensors of the carpus, and the sipinator radii brevis.

Of these four muscles, one only is visible on the
model throughout its entire extent — viz., ist, -the
supinator lo7igus or brachio-radialis (14, Fig. 75 ;
12, 13, Fig. yj), which arises from the outer supra-
condyloid border of the humerus, between the brach-
ialis anticus in front and the triceps behind. It is
noteworthy that on this side the muscles of the
forearm ascend on the arm almost up to the insertion
of the deltoid. The supinator longus enlarges as it
descends, so that it presents its greatest size at the
level of the external condyle, the prominence of
which it completely conceals. It forms the outer
vertical boundary (page 234) of the triangular hollow
at the bend of the elbow. Just below the middle of
the forearm, the fleshy fibres are replaced by a long
tendon which lies on the radius, and (13, Fig. yy) is
finally inserted into the base of the styloid process of
that bone. Notwithstanding its name, this muscle is
not essentially a supinator ; it acts in this way only
when the forearm is in a position of complete prona-
tion, and its proper action in this respect is to bring the
forearm into a position between supination and pro-
nation. Its principal function, however, is the flexion
of the forearm on the arm, and in this movement its
form is clearly shown externally in the form of a
prominent band, wliich rises from the arm, and forms,

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand. 239

on the antero-external part of the elbow, a strong
fleshy mass, filhng up the hollow produced by the
flexion of the forearm on the arm. The supinator
longus is the most important of the muscles of the
forearm with regard to the part it takes in the
external form of this region.

The two next muscles (14 and 15, Fig. "j^)
are partly hidden by the preceding ; they are
the. radial extensors of the carpus (2 and 3),
distinguished as the extensor carpi radialis, lo7igior
and hrevior (15, Fig. 75). They arise from the
lower part of the outer supracondyloid ridge of
the humerus and from the outer condyle, and
form fleshy masses (3 and 5, Fig. 78), which
increase the prominence of the supinator longus,
and help to conceal the outer condyle. At about the
same level as in the case of the supinator longus, a
tendon succeeds the fleshy belly of each of these
muscles, and inclines a little backward (Fig. ']^')\
having been crossed by the exterisor ossis metacarpi
pollicis, by the extejisor brevis pollicis (7 and 8,
Fig. ']Z^, and by the extensor longns pollicis ; each
reaches the dorsal surface of the wrist, and is inserted
into the base of the metacarpal bone of the index
finger (extensor carpi radialis longior), and into
the base of the metacarpal bone of the middle
finger (extensor carpi radialis brevior, 6, Fig. 'j'^^.

4th. Surrounding the upper part of the radius
is a small deep muscle, which does not show on
the model, and which we mention here only to
point out that its presence increases the prominence
of the muscular mass on the outer side of the
elbow ; this is the supinator radii brevis, formed by

240

Artistic Anatomy.

\

fibres which, arising from the humerus, elbow-joint,

and ulna, are rolled round the
back and outer side of the
radius, and which acts so as
to turn the bone backwards
and thus produce supination.

II. Posterior superficial
muscles (Fig. 78). — This
group comprises the ex-
tensor ce7nmtmis digitorumy
the extensor minimi digiti,
the extensor carpi idnarisy
and the anconeus. These
four muscles arise from the
external condyle, to which
they are attached by a
common tendon ; from this
origin they are directed
downwards, the first almost
vertically, the last {anconeus)
very obliquely backwards
and inwards.

ist. The extensor coni-
mtinis digitorum (11, Fig. 'jZ)

Fig. 78. — The Posterior Muscles of the
Left Forearm. — i, the tendon of triceps brachi-
alis ; — 2, supinator longus ; — 3 and 4, extensor
carpi radialis longior ; — 5 and 6, extensor carpi
radialis brevior ; — 7 and 8, extensor ossis meta-
carpi pollicis and extensor brevis pollicis ; — 9, 9,
the extensor longus polUcis ; — 10, 10, the annular
ligament of the wrist (dorsal aspect); — 11, 12, the
extensor communis digitorum and its tendons ; —
13, the tendon of the extensor indicis; — 14, the
tendon of the extensor minimi digiti ; — 15, 16, ex-
tensor carpi ulnaris ; — 17, anconeus ; — 18, the
flexor carpi ulnaris — 19, the posterior border of
J^iG- 78- the ulna; — 20, olecranon ; — 21, the inner condyle.

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand. 241

forms a long fusiform fleshy belly. In the
lower third of the posterior surface of the
forearm, it gives place to a tendon which soon
subdivides into four bands. These remain in con-
tact until they have passed a groove situated in
the centre of the inferior extremity of the radius,
and separate on the dorsal surface of the wrist,
diverging so as to be attached to each of the
four fingers. On the back of the hand the tendons
of the middle, ring, and little fingers are joined
together by two oblique tendinous slips directed
obliquely downwards and outwards, from the
fourth to the third, and from the third to the
second tendon respectively. On the dorsal surface
of the first phalanx of each finger (12, Fig. "jZ^
the extensor tendon forms a membranous expan-
sion, and thereafter divides into three slips, a
central one inserted into the base of the second
phalanx, and two lateral slips which unite again
to be inserted into the base of the third phalanx.
The tendons cover the backs of the knuckles
and of the joints of the fingers.

2nd. The extensor nimimi digiti is a small bundle
of fleshy fibres lying adjacent to the preceding
muscle, but distinctly detached from it. It gives
rise to a separate tendon, which passes through a
special groove beneath the posterior annular liga-
ment between the lower ends of the radius
and ulna. From the wrist it is directed to-
wards the posterior surface of the little finger
(14, Fig. 'jZ^j where it unites with the tendinous
fasciculi from the common extensor tendon for
the little finger, and joins in the formation of

242 Artistic Anatomy.

the membranous expansion on the dorsum of
the first phalanx.

3rd. The extensor carpi idnaris (15, Fig. 'jZ^ is a
fusiform muscle arising from the external condyle
and the posterior surface of the ulna. It is replaced
by a tendon in the lower fourth of the forearm
(15, Fig. "jK), This tendon passes beneath the
posterior annular ligament in a groove on the
posterior surface of the ulna (10, Fig. ^%^j and at
the inner part of the dorsal surface of the carpus
it terminates almost immediately by being inserted
into the base of the metacarpal bone of the little
finger (16, Fig. 78).

These three muscles are extensors of the fingers
and hand. If we examine a living model which has
the arm folded on the trunk, the dorsal surface of the
forearm being turned forwards, and which quickly
moves the fingers and hand, we see clearly the
movements of the fingers marked by muscular
movements in the upper two-thirds of the posterior
surface of the forearm. We can, by following their
prominences in contraction, clearly recognise the
fusiform bellies of these muscles.

4th. The anconeus occupies the upper part of the
posterior surface of the forearm. As its name
indicates {ci>yK(iiVj olecranon, elbow), it is a muscle
of the region of the elbow; it forms (17, Fig. y^)
a triangular fleshy mass, of which the apex is
attached to the external condyle, and the base is
inserted into the external surface of the olecranon,
and corresponding part of the ulna (19, Fig. y^).
As the ulna does not possess appreciably the move-
ment of rotation, but shares only in flexion and

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand. 243

extension of the elbow-joint, the anconeus situated
behind the joint has no other action than that of
extending the forearm on the arm. When this
movement is forcibly produced, we see the anconeus
clearly marked by a triangular prominence, of
which the upper border, the shortest, is united with
the prominence of the triceps ; and we have already
mentioned the anatomical fact that the inferior
portion of the triceps is directly continuous in the
forearm with the anconeus muscle.

244

CHAPTER XXI.

MUSCLES OF THE FOREARM AND HAND

{continued),

3rd. The posterior deep muscles of the forearm ; their tendons at the level of
the wrist {anatomical snuff-box). — Muscles of the hand ;— 1st, Muscles
of the thumb, or thenar eminence. 2nd. Muscles of the little finger, or
hypothenar eminence. 3. Short muscles of the palm (Imnhricales and
interossei).

III. The deep posterior muscles of the forearm, with
regard to external form, are important only in the
arrangement of their tendons in the wrist and hand ;
for this reason we describe them in this chapter
along with the muscular structures of the hand and
fingers.

As in the other regions, we find in the deep part
of the back of the forearm, four muscles. Proceeding
from without inwards they are — the extensor ossis
metacarpi pollicis, the extensor brevis polliciSy the
extensor longiis pollicis, and the extensor indicis.
The fleshy bellies of these muscles are almost
completely hidden beneath the posterior superficial
muscles ; but their tendons, at least those of the first
three, emerge beneath the external border of the
common extensor of the fingers, and their form is
shown (7 and 8, Fig. 78) by details of great import-
ance on the outer side of the dorsal aspect of the
wrist.

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand. 245

The two first (7 and 8, Fig. 78), the extensor ossis
metacarpi pollicis (7) and the extensor hrevis pollicis
(8), must be described together, as their fleshy parts
and tendons are placed together and are almost
united throughout the greater extent of their course.
These two muscles emerge in the lower third of the
forearm, at the outer border of the common extensor
of the fingers ; and they form at this point, at the
junction of the posterior surface with the outer
border of the forearm, an oblong eminence, which is
soon succeeded by a double tendon. Crossing the
tendons of the radial extensors of the wrist, this
double tendon is directed towards the outer surface
of the lower end of the radius, where it passes
through a groove (10) converted into a canal by the
posterior annular ligament of the wrist. At the
outer border of the wrist these two tendons form a
prominence, well marked beneath the skin, when the
thumb is separated from the other fingers. Finally,
at the base of the metacarpal bone of the thumb
these tendons separate, one, that of the extensor
ossis metacarpi pollicis, being inserted into the base of
the metacarpal bone, while the other, that of the
extensor hrevis pollicis, passes over the first meta-
carpal bone to be inserted into the base of the first
phalanx of the thumb (8, at the level of the thumb.
Fig. 78).

The extensor longus pollicis (9, Fig. 78) emerges,
like the preceding tendons, on the outer side of the
common extensor, but lower down, on the back of
the wrist ; its tendon only becomes superficial at this
point, and it is directed obliquely downwards through
a prominent deep groove on the posterior surface of

246 Artistic Anatomy.

the lower end of the radius, where it is covered by
the posterior annular ligament. On the back of the
wrist the tendon is directed obliquely outwards,
crossing the tendons of the radial extensors of the
wrist, to reach the base of the metacarpal bone of
the thumb, where it lies parallel to the tendon of the
extensor brevis pollicis. Descending lower than this
tendon it is finally inserted into the second or
terminal phalanx of the thumb (9, Fig. "]%).

The tendons of the extensor ossis metacarpi and
extensor brevis pollicis on the one hand, and the
extensor longus pollicis on the other, form on the
outer part of the back of the wrist a triangular figure,
of which the apex corresponds to the upper end of
the thumb, and the base to the lower end of the
radius. When we separate the thumb strongly from
the index finger — that is to sa}^, when we contract the
three small muscles which we have been studying —
the corresponding tendons mark the borders of this
triangle in the form of prominent cords, between
which is a deep concavity ; to this depression is given
the name of the anatomical snuff -box (4, Fig. ^%^,

The extensor indicis is not visible on the model ;
it is deeply situated beneath the common extensor of
the fingers, and terminates in a tendon (13, Fig. 'j'^)
which unites with the tendinous fibres from the
common extensor to the index finger. It is to this
muscle that the index finger owes its power of
extension independent of the other fingers, and of
performing the functions which have given it the
name of the index or indicating finger. It is to be
noted that in separate extension of the index finger
(with flexion of the others) the tendon of the extensor

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand. 242

communis digitorum in the back of tiie hand gets
curved outwards, by being pulled into line with the
extended index finger by the traction of the tendon
of the extensor indicis (Macewen).

Muscles of the
haiid. — The numerous
muscles belonging to
the hand form an in-
teresting study in re-
lation to the median
ism of the multiple
and delicate move-
ments of the fingers,
but as the various
details of their com-
plex arrangement do
not show very plainly
on the surface we may
confine our study of
them to an enumera-
tion of their principal
features.

The dorsal region
of the hand (Fig. ^^^
does not possess any
fleshy muscles, but
only presents the tendons belonging to the muscles of
the forearm. The arrangement of the tendons after
passing beneath the posterior annular ligament has
already been described (pp. 245-6). Notice should
be taken of an arch of veins lying superficial to the
tendons. This venous arch receives the veins from the
fingers, and is variable in its arrangement and outline.

Fig. 79.

Muscles of the Hand (palmar surface).
— 2, abductor pollicis (cut) ; — 3, opponens
pollicis ; — 4, flexor brevis pollicis ; — 5, ad-
ductor obliquus pollicis ; — 6, adductor trans-
versus pollicis ;— 7, deep flexor tendons and
lumbrical muscles ; — 8, flexor tendons on
finger ; — 9, flexor longus pollicis ; — 10, ab-
ductor minimi digiti ; — 11, flexor brevis
minimi digiti ; — 12, pisiform bone.

248 Artistic Anatomy.

On the other hand, the anterior or palmar region
of the hand possesses, beside the tendons of the
muscles of the forearm, numerous small muscles,
which are divided into three groups : — ist, an ex-
ternal group associated with the thumb, forming the
fleshy prominence known as the thenar eminence ;
2nd, an internal group, belonging to the little finger,
forming the hypothenar eminence ; 3rd, a middle and
deeper group, formed by small muscles belonging to
the fingers, and placed deep in the hand beneath the
thiok palmar fascia, which, occupying the hollow of
the palm, fills up the space between the thenar and
hypothenar eminences (Fig. 79).

ist. The thenar eminence (2-5, Fig. 79) is of a
long ovoid form, with the large superior extremity
corresponding to the carpus, and the smaller inferior
extremity corresponding to the base of the first
phalanx of the thumb. It is formed by six muscles,
namely, the abdnctor pollicis (24, Fig. jj ; 2, Fig. 79),
which proceeds from the trapezium and annular
ligament to the outer side of the first phalanx of
the thumb ; the opponens pollicis (3, Fig. 79), with a
similar origin, inserted into the entire length of the
outer border of the first metacarpal bone, so that its
contraction draws the whole thumb (phalanges and
metacarpal bone) towards the palm of the hand, and
thus opposes it to the other fingers ; the flexor brevis
pollicis (superficial part) (4, Fig. 79), which proceeds
ft-om the annular ligament to the base of the first
phalanx ; the adductor obliqims pollicis (5, Fig. 79),
arising from the carpus and heads of the metacarpal
bones, and inserted into the inner side of the first
phalanx of the thumb ; the adductor transversus

Muscles of the Forearm and Hand. 249

pollicis (6, Fig. 79), a muscle remarkable for its
arrangement; for it arises from the middle of the
palm of the hand, from the anterior surface of the
third metacarpal bone, and forming a comparatively-
broad fleshy mass, extends outwards to be
inserted along with the adductor obliquus into
the inner side of the base of the first phalanx of the
thumb ; and finally a small muscle deeply placed in
the space between the first and second metacarpal
bones, and known as the deep part of the flexor
brevis pollicis (or the iriterosseiis primus volaris).
2nd. The hypothenar eminence is long and elliptical
in form, but smaller thar the thenar eminence ; it is
covered in part by a small muscle which is not shown
by any external prominence, but only by the folds
which it marks in the skin during its contraction ;
this is the palmaris brevis, formed of transverse
fibres, which, arising from the inner border of the
palmar fascia, is inserted into the deep surface of
the skin on the inner border of the hand. The
contraction of its fibres draws the skin of the part
upwards and forms an irregular vertical furrow, so
that the prominence of the skin of the upper part
of the hypothenar eminence becomes more clearly
marked. The hypothenar eminence itself is formed
by three small muscles vertically arranged over the
fifth metacarpal bone : — i,the abductor miriimi digiti
(28, Fig. yy ; 10, Fig. 79), passing from the pisiform
bone to the inner side of the first phalanx of the
little finger ; 2, the flexor brevis mi7iimi digit i {2jy
Fig. jj', II, Fig. 79), passing from the prominence of
the unciform bone to the same phalanx ; and lastly,
3, the opponens minifni digiti, arising from the unci-

250 Artistic Anatomy.

form bone and inserted into the entire length of the
fifth metacarpal bone, so that its contraction shghtly
draws outwards the whole of the little finger, and
opposes it to a certain degree to the thumb.

3rd. The muscles of the middle region of the
palm of the hand are in two series. One set is
arranged between the tendons oi t\iQ flexor prof imdiis
digitoru7n muscle (see anterior deep muscles of the
forearm, page 2'^']^ as small fusiform muscles, which
have been compared to the form of a worm — hence
their name of liimhricales (7, Fig. 79). The others
are arranged in the spaces between the metacarpal
bones, and are known as the interosseous muscles.

The liifnbricales muscles, as Figure jj shows
(23, 2^^), are four in number — one for each of the
four fingers. Their upper ends are attached to the
deep flexor tendons ; and from this origin they descend
to reach the outer or radial border of the first phalanx
of each finger. Sweeping round the knuckle on its
outer side, each tendon is inserted into the meta-
carpo-phalangeal capsule, the outer side of the base
of the first phalanx, and into the expansion of the
extensor tendon on the aorsum of the first phalanx
of each finger. In consequence of this mode of inser-
tion each muscle is a flexor of the metacarpo-phalan-
geal joint, and in addition, because of its connection
with the extensor tendon, it is at the same time
an extensor of the inter-phalangeal joints.

The interosseous 7nuscles are seven in number,
divided into two series, dorsal and palmar. The
dorsal muscles, four in number, are found one
in each interosseous space between the metacarpal
bones. The three palmar interosseous muscles

Muscles op the Forearm and Hand. 251

occupy the three inner spaces. They arise from
the sides of the metacarpal bones (the dorsal
muscles by double origins, the palmar muscles by
single heads from the inner three metacarpal bones) ;
and they are inserted in the same way as the
lumbrical muscles into the fingers, so as to act as
flexors of the metacarpo-phalangeal, and extensors
of the inter-phalangeal joints. The several muscles
pass in relation to the sides of the knuckles in
a way that need not be detailed here, so as to
occupy positions which enable them to act so as
to separate or draw together the fingers. The
dorsal interossei muscles serve to separate the
fingers from each other, while the palmar serve
to bring them together ; or, to be more precise,
the dorsal muscles abduct the fingers from the
middle line of the middle finger, while the palmar
muscles adduct the fingers on which they act
(third, fourth, and fifth) towards the axis of the
middle finger.

252

CHAPTER XXII.

MUSCLES OF THE PELVIS AND THIGH.

The Buttock. — Gluteus maximus, its thickness and form ; its relations lo
the great trochanter. — Gluteus inedius. — The subjacent muscles (^/z^/^«5
ininitnus,pyrifor}nis, etc.). — Muscles of the thigh ; 1st, External region
tensor fascia; latce [vagincB fetnoris)^ its importance with regard to
external form ; aponeurosis of fascia lata ; 2nd, Anterior region,
sartorius^ peculiarities of this muscle during contraction ; quadriceps
extensor {rectus^ vastus iiiterrius, vastus externus, crureus) ; 3^'^>
Internal region, the adductors; 4th, Posterior region, hamstring
muscles {biceps, seini-tendinosus, and seini-inembranosus).

Muscles of the Pelvis. — The muscles of the
pelvis visible on the model are all situated on the
posterior surface of that part of the skeleton, and
form the buttock, or gluteal region. In front the
anterior wall of the abdomen, descending to
Poupart's ligament and the pubis (Fig. 70, page 197),
conceals the muscles which proceed from the
interior of the pelvis towards the thigh — muscles of
which a short sketch will be given along with those
of the front of the thigh.

Of the muscles of the gluteal region two only-
are superficial and well marked on the model-
viz., the gluteus maximus and gluteus medius.

The gluteus 7naximus muscle (Fig. yz, page 201)
is the largest and thickest of all the muscles of
the body. It is composed of large fleshy fibres
directed obliquely from the sacro-iliac region to-
wards the upper part of the femur. Its fibres
arise from the posterior extremity of the crest of

Muscles of the Pelvis and Thigh. 253

the ilium (4, Fig. 34, page 107), by an aponeurosis
from the back of the sacrum, from the sacrum
itself, and from the sacro-sciatic ligament. The coarse
fleshy fibres are directed downwards and outwards
through the gluteal region (Fig. Gy). At the level
of the great trochanter these fibres are for the
most part inserted into a broad, thick, tendinous
lamina, which is continuous with the aponeurosis
of the thigh or fascia lata. The lower and deeper
part of the muscle is inserted directly into the
gluteal ridge of the femur (page 133). The gluteus
maximus muscle presents four borders : (i) an
interfial border, corresponding to its origin, and
convex inwards, and (2) an external border, also
slightly convex at its insertion. This border
corresponds to the line along which the fleshy
fibres terminate ; it forms a prominence, which
curves posteriorly round the great trochanter.
When we have enumerated the muscles lying
beneath the gluteus maximus, it will be more easy
to understand how the muscular structure of the
gluteal region as a whole is so prominent that
the great trochanter actually forms on the model
the centre of a depressed area, bounded behind
and above by the prominence of the gluteal
muscles, and in front by the tensor muscle of the
fascia lata (see Muscles of the thigh), (3) The
inferior border of the gluteus maximus is thick,
and forms an oblique elevation, beneath which the
posterior muscles of the thigh emerge ; it is this
which helps to form the lower limit of the
prominence of the buttock. In the erect position
the lower limit of the gluteal region is indicated

254 Artistic Anatomy.

by a transverse fold (the fold of the nates).
This line runs diagonally across the lower border
of the gluteus maximus, and is produced not by
the edge, but by the weight of the relaxed muscle,
and the fat which covers it. (4) The superior border
is thin (Fig. 74, page 217), and is continuous
with the fascia lata, which covers the gluteus
medius, so that its prominence is little marked on
the model, being more or less lost in the area
corresponding to the position of the gluteus medius
muscle.

The gluteus maximiis is an extensor of the thigh
on the pelvis. In the upright position it supports
the pelvis behind and prevents it from inclining
forwards. It is by its action that the trunk is raised
so as to be in the same line as the upright lower
limb. The gluteus maximus is therefore the muscle
of the upright position, and we observe the large
size which it presents in the human subject compared
with its small proportions in animals which do not
adopt the biped attitude.

The gluteus medius muscle is situated both above
and beneath that of the gluteus maximus — that is
to say, the postero-inferior part is covered by the
preceding muscle, but its antero-superior part is
superficially placed. This latter part (Fig. 74,
between 22 and 23) is, however, covered by the
thick fascia lata of the thigh, which binds down the
muscle to the dorsum ilii. Arising from the anterior
three-fourths of the crest of the ilium, and from the
dorsum ilii as well as from the fascia over it, the fibres
of the gluteus medius descend, converging towards
the great trochanter, into the external surface of

Muscles of the Pelvis and Thigh. 255

which they are inserted by a thick aponeurotic ten-
don. The fleshy fibres cease a httle above the great
trochanter so as to form a prominence along a curved
hue with its concavity downwards, which forms the
superior boundary of the depression corresponding to
the region of the great trochanter, referred to above.
The gluteus medius, by
its posterior fibres, acts
like the gluteus maxi-
mus ; by its anterior
fibres it draws the thigh
outwards, acting as an
abductor.

The gluteus maxi-
mus and gluteus medius
muscles conceal a series
of deep muscles filling
up the large space which
we observe on the skele-
ton between the great
trochanter and the pelvic
wall. These muscles,
which we only need to
enumerate in order to
understand the import-
ance of the prominence
of the buttock, are,
taking them in order, as
follows — the glitteics
minimus, which lies ex-
actly beneath the gluteus

medius, and proceeds from the dorsum ilii to the
superior and anterior border of the great trochanter ;

Fig. 80,

The Deep Gluteal Muscles. — i,
Dorsum ilii; — 2, sacrum; — 3, posterior
sacro-iliac ligament ; — 4, tuberosity of
ischium ;— 5, great, 6, lesser sacro-sciatic
ligament ; — 7, great trochanter ; — 8,
gluteus minimus ;— 9, pyriformis ; — 10, 11,
12, gemelli and obturator internus ;— 13,
quadratus femoris ;— 14, adductor mag-
nus ; — 15, vastus extemus ; — 16, biceps
and semi-tendinosus — 17, gracilis ; — 18,
semi-membranosus.

256 Artistic Anatomy.

ihQpyriformiSy which arises within the pelvis from the
anterior surface of the sacrum, escapes from the pelvis
through the great sciatic notch, and is directed
obliquely towards the great trochanter, into the
upper border of which its tendon is inserted ; the
obturator iritermis, which proceeds also from the
interior of the pelvis, is reflected over the lesser
sciatic notch and is inserted into the internal surface
of the great trochanter along with two accessory
muscles, the genie Hi ; and finally, the qiiadratiis
femoris, formed by short horizontal fibres, which
extends from the outer part of the tuberosity of the
ischium to the posterior surface of the femur between
the two trochanters.

Muscles of the thigh. — The muscles of the thigh
are arranged around the femur, and frequently in a
direction so oblique that they appear in one portion,
for example, on the front, and in another portion on
the inner side of the thigh. We can, however, class
them in four series — external, comprising the tensor
vagincB femoris {fascicB latcB) ; anterior, comprising
the sartorins and quadriceps extensor ; internal, com-
prising the adductors ; and posterior, comprising the
biceps, the semi-nie^nbranosns, and the semi-tendinosus.

I. Outer side of the thigh. The tensor vagince
femoris muscle (3, Fig. 81). — This muscle lies in the
plane of the gluteus maximus (23, Fig. 74, page 217),
and forms a distinct prominence in front of the great
trochanter. It arises from the anterior superior spine
of tlie ilium, and is directed downwards and slightly
backwards on the outer side of the thigh, to terminate
a short way below the level of the great trochanter
by being inserted into the broad and thick apo-

Muscles of the Pelvis and Thigh. 257

neurosis — the fascia lata — which covers this region
(4, Fig. 81). This aponeu-
rosis is specially thickened
by the addition of vertical
fibres, which form a tendon
of insertion known as the
ilio-tibial band. This band
descends to the outer side
of the knee as a distinct
prominent tendon, which
is inserted finally into the
outer tuberosity of the tibia
(seepage 135). This muscle
rotates outwards the thigh
and the whole lower limb,
and contributes also to the
flexion of the thigh, on the
pelvis ; therefore, when the
thigh is extended and not
turned inwards, the tensor
muscle forms beneath the
iliac spine a long muscular
elevation, but when it is in
action its form becomes
short and broad, and forms
a characteristic globular
mass. This contrast in the
form of the tensor muscle
in repose and in action has
been beautifully shown on ^^^ musJes ok "the antek,oh

Surface of the Right Thigh. —
I, the iliacus ; — 2, the psoas ; — 3, the tensor vaginae femoris ; — 4, its tendon (fascia
lata); — 5, the sartorius ;— 6, the rectus (long head of quadriceps ; — 7, vastus extemus
(the external head) ; — 8, vastus internus (the internal bead); — 9, the gracilis ; — 10,
the adductor longus ; — xi. the pectineus.

258 Artistic Anatomy,

the Gladiator, in which there is contraction of the ten-
sor of the right thigh and relaxation of that of the left.

The ilio-tibial band and the aponeurosis of the
fascia lata cover, on the outer side of the thigh,
the large fleshy mass of the vastus externus (a part
of the quadriceps extensor muscle), which belongs
to the anterior region of the thigh. This muscle,
thus covered in, is shown throughout its entire ex-
tent on the surface. Though covered by the fascia
lata, it forms a marked convexity on the outer side
of the thigh, as a gentle curve in women, and a
strongly bowed line in well-developed, muscular men.

II. Front of the Thigh. The sar tortus muscle
(5, Figs. 81, and 23, Fig. 70, page 197).— This is
the longest muscle in the human bod)^ It forms a
narrow fleshy band, which arises from the anterior
superior iliac spine, and is directed obliquely down-
wards and inwards. Crossing the front of the thigh
obliquely, it descends round the inner side of the
knee over the inner condyle of the femur (Fig. %(y)j
describing a curve with the concavity forward. It
finally terminates at the upper part of the inner
surface of the shaft of the tibia in a flat tendon
(19 and 20, Fig. "^(y) which sweeps forward to be
inserted into that bone just below the inner tuber-
osity in front of and along with the gracilis and
semi-tendinosus muscles.

The sartorius flexes and abducts the thigh on the
pelvis, and flexes the leg on the thigh ; so that it gives
to the lower limb a position similar to that of a tailor
when seated, hence the name of this muscle {sartor ^
a tailor). With regard to surface form, this muscle
is indicated externally in a peculiar manner. When

Muscles of the Pelvis and Thigh. 259

it contracts, only its superior extremity presents a super-
ficial prominence ; throughout the rest of its extent,
the presence of the muscle, lying in the depressed
groove between the quadriceps extensor in front and
the adductor muscles on the inner side, is indicated
during contraction by a large shallow furrow, particu-
larly noticeable on the inner side of the thigh, at the
junction of the upper two-thirds with the lower third.

Quadriceps extensor (6, 7, 8, Fig. 81). — The
quadriceps extensor muscle belongs to the outer and
inner regions of the thigh as well as to the front of
the limb, but the element of the muscle of most
importance in relation to external form — the rectus
femoris — is situated anteriorly. The muscle, asits
name implies, is composed of four portions : one, the
rectus, in the middle ; the vastus i?iter?itis and the
vastus externus, on each side ; and the crureus, the
deepest part, concealed by the other portions of the
muscle.

The rectus femoris (21, Fig. 70, and 6, Fig. 81) is
long and fusiform in shape — that is to say, larger at
its centre than at its extremities. Its superior ex-
tremity, the more slender of the two, arises by a
double tendon from the anterior inferior iliac spine
and the dorsum ilii, and appears on the front of the
thigh between the tensor fasciae femoris and the
sartorius muscles. Lying in the angular space which
separates these two muscles (Fig. 81), the rectus
descends vertically on the front of the thigh, and
about four inches above the patella forms a broad
tendon (Figs. 81 and 84), the borders of which give
insertion on either side to the vastus internus and
vastus externus muscles, while its deep surface gives

26o Artistic Anatomy.

insertion to the crureus muscle^ and its base broadens
out to be inserted into the patella. From the
lower end of the patella a broad li.sjament — the liga-
ment of the patella — arises (page 134), which is
inserted into the tubercle of the tibia ; it follows,
therefore, that by means of the tendon of the rectus
fern oris, the patella, and the hgament of the patella,
the quadriceps extensor muscle is eventually inserted
into the tibia (Fig. 45, page 137).

The vastus inte^'uiis muscle (8, Fig. 81) is a very
large flesh}^ mass, which covers the inner side of the
femur. Arising from the inner lip of the linea aspera
of the femur, from the edge of the bone (spiral line)
above, and from the internal supra-condyloid ridge
below, its muscular fibres are directed downwards
and forwards, to be inserted into the deep surface
and the inner border of the tendon of the rectus
femoris, into the side of the patella, and into the
capsule of the knee-joint. It conceals the crureus
and partly blends with that muscle. The outline of
the vastus internus is easily discernible on the surface,
forming a somewhat triangular, convex, and rounded
contour ; bounded internally by the furrow of the
sartorius, externally by a vertical line where it joins
the tendon of the rectus femoris, and below bv its
lower border, it forms a well-marked rounded line
sweeping outwards over the internal condyle of the
femur to the side of the patella. These details are of
great importance in regard to the contour of the
region above the patella, and are in marked contrast,
as we b^hall see, with the arrangement presented at the
same level by the lower part of the vastus externus.

The vastus externus (7, Fig. 81) hes external to

Muscles of the Pelvis and Thigh. 261

the rectus femoris, and conceals the crureus, with
which its deep surface is partially blended. Its
origin, which underlies the tensor fasciae femoris
and the ilio-tibial band, is from the upper half of the
shaft of the femur, from the outer lip of the linea
aspera. Its fibres sweep downwards and slightly
forwards to be inserted into the tendon of the rectus,
the patella, and the capsule of the knee-joint. The
line along which it is inserted into the rectus tendon
describes a curve of which the convexity looks
towards the supero-external angle of the patella,
from which it is separated by a considerable in-
terval (Figs. 81 and 85). Consequently on the
surface the flat surface above the patella forms a
sort of triangle, of which the borders are very
different, the inner border being vertical, the outer
one oblique, curved, and higher in position ; the base
of the triangle corresponds to the patella and the
lateral parts of the capsule of the knee-joint ; its
truncated summit corresponds to the inferior ex-
tremity of the fleshy part of the rectus ; and the
borders of this flat surface, formed by the fleshy
insertions of the vasti muscles, become very promi-
nent when the leg is forcibly straightened on the thigh.
The crureus muscle, deeply placed, is the fourth
element in the quadriceps hiuscle. It arises ft'om
the upper three-fourths of the shaft of the femur,
externally and in front, and forms a thick, fleshy
mass, responsible to a great extent for the general
contour of the front and sides of the thigh, though
it is not actually noticeable directly on the surface.
It is almost wholly concealed by the three pre-
vious muscles. It is partially blended on each side

262 Artistic Anatomy.

with the vasti muscles ; and it is inserted as well into
the deep surface of the tendon of the rectus femoris.
It is hardly necessary to point out, since it is
clear from its anatomical arrangement, that the
quadriceps muscle, passing by means of the patella
and the patellar ligament to the tubercle of the
tibia, is essentially the extensor muscle of the leg.

It is to be noted that the two vasti muscles
have a very different effect in the shaping of the
contours of the thigh. The vastus externus has its
greatest prominence well above the patella on the
outer side : the most prominent part of the vastus
internus is formed by its lowest fibres, as they
sweep across over the inner condyle of the femur.

III. The inner side of the thigh. The adductor
fnuscles. — We understand by the adductors the
numerous muscles that occupy the inner part
of the thigh, and which, passing down from the
pubis and ischium along the entire length of the
femur, fill up the triangular space which appears
in the skeleton between the inner surface of the
femur and the pubic part of the hip-bone. Some
of the muscles of this series take the special name
of adductors. We will study in succession three
muscles clearly visible on the model— viz. the
pcctineusy the adductor longus, and the gracilis;
afterwards we will mention briefly the muscles
almost hidden by the preceding — namely, the
adductor brevis and the adductor magnus muscles.

The pectineus 7nuscle (22, Fig. 70, and 11,
Fig. 81), the first and shortest of the muscles of this
region, is a broad fleshy band which extends from
the horizontal ramus of the pubis to the upper

Muscles of the Pelvis and Thigh. 263

part of the shaft of the femur (to
a rough hne passing from the
hnea aspera to the lesser tro-
chanter). The lower part of
this muscle is hidden by the
sartorius, and the upper part
does not show itself clearly be-
neath the skin, being covered
by the large vessels of the thigh,
and also in most cases by a
quantity of fat. The pectineus
forms the middle part of the floor
of a triangular space in the upper
third of the thigh, with its apex
below, known in surgical
anatomy as Scarpa's triafigle,
which is bounded externally by
the sartorius muscle. The base
of the triangle corresponds to
the groin, and is formed by
Poupart's ligament. The outer
part of the floor of the triangle
is formed by a large muscle, of
which the greater part is situated
in the cavity of the abdomen.
This is the ilio-psoas muscle
(i and 2, Fig. 81), which arises
from the lateral parts of the lum-
bar vertebrae (psoas) and from
the iliac fossa (iliacus), passes t„,r,c,htLeg.-x, internal

gastrocnemius; — 2, external gastrocnemius; — 3, space between gastrocnemii ; —
^, 5, tendo Achillis; — 6, 7 7, plantaris muscle and its tendon; — 8, tendons of
deep muscles (common flexor and posterior tibial) ; — 9, peroneus longus ; — 10,
peroneus brevis ; — 11, soleus ; — 12, biceps femoris ; — 13, semi-tendinosus ; — 14,
semi-membranosus — 15, gracilis ; — 16, sartorius.

l\«

Fig. 82.
The Popliteal Region
AND Posterior Surface of

264 Artistic Anatomy,

beneath Poupart's ligament (page 199), and after
traversing Scarpa's triangle is inserted into the lesser
trochanter of the femur. This muscle is not visible
superficially except just below and internal to the
anterior superior iliac spine, where it forms a slight
bulging beneath the skin.

The inner part of the floor of Scarpa's triangle
is formed by the adductor longics, triangular in
shape (10, Fig. 81) ; arising by a narrow tendon
from the angle of the pubis, it is inserted, beneath
the sartorius, into the middle portion of the Hnea
aspera of the femur.

The gracilis is visible throughout its entire
length on the inner surface of the thigh (9, Fig. 81).
It forms a long slender fleshy band, broader above and
narrower below.. Arising from the symphysis and
descending ramus of the pubis, it descends vertically ;
a little above the inner condyle of the femur it
is replaced by a narrow tendon (15, Fig. ^2),
which sweeps round the condyle, behind the sar-
torius, and in front of the semi-tendinosus, to be
inserted into the upper part of the inner surface
of the shaft of the tibia behind the sartorius and
above the semi-tendinosus.

Covered by the preceding muscles and placed
more deeply, are the adductors, brevis and magnus,
which fill up the space between the gracilis and the
femur. The adductor brevis extends from the pubis
to the upper part of the hnea aspera ; the adductor
?nagjius is a thick, fleshy, triangular muscle which
arises from the tuberosity and ramus of the ischium,
and is inserLed into the entire length of the linea
aspera of the femur, so that its superior fibres are

Muscles of the Pelvis and Thigh. 265

horizontal and its inferior fibres almost vertical in
direction ; among these last the
most internal, which arise from the
ischial tuberosity, form below a dis-
tinct tendon, which projects above
the inner side of the knee-joint and
is inserted into a tubercle (the
adductor tubercle of the femur)
placed above the inner condyle of
the femur.

The action of all the muscles
which we have just studied, except
the pectineus, is to draw the thigh
inwards towards the axis of the
body ; they also bring the knees
close to each other, hence they are
called the adductors of the thigh.

IV. The hack of the thigh. The
posterior muscles of the thigh {ham-
string muscles), — These muscles,
three in number, arise from the
tuberosity of the ischium, and thus
their origins are hidden beneath the
gluteus maximus. They emerge be-
low the lower border of that muscle
and descend vertically ; above the
posterior surface of the knee (or
ham) they divide into two masses^
one, the external, formed by a
single muscle, the biceps femoris,
the other internal, formed by two
muscles placed one on the other, the sefni-tendiiiosus
and the semi-7?ie7nbra7iosus.

Fig. 83.
Hamstring Muscles.

1, gluteus medius ; —

2, gluteus maximus ; —

3, vastus externus ; —

4, biceps (long head) ;—

5, biceps (short head) ;—

6, semi-tendinosus ; —

7, semi-membranosus ; —

8, gracilis ; — 9, adductor
magnus ; — 10, sartorius ;
—II, popliteal space ; —
12, gastrocnemius.

266 Artistic Anatomy.

The biceps femoris (4, Fig. 83) is so called
because, like the biceps in the arm, it is formed above
by two heads, a long head which arises from the
tuberosity of the ischium, and a short head, more
deeply placed, which arises from the hnea aspera of
the femur. These two heads unite in a stout tendon
(12, Fig. Z2) which the muscular fibres accompany for
the greater part of its length, and which is directed
downwards on the outer side of the knee, to be
inserted into the summit of the superior extremity of
the head of the fibula. This muscle flexes the leg on
the thigh, and when it accomplishes this action its
tendon becomes very prominent, forming the outer
boundary of the region of the ham or pophteal
space.

The se7ni-tendinosiLS (13, Fig. Z2\ 6, Fig. 83), visible
throughout its entire extent (except at its origin, which
is hidden beneath the gluteus maximus), has been so
called because in a great part of its length, almost equal
to its lower half, it is represented only by its tendon.
It arises above from the ischium, and descends
parallel to the long head of the biceps, to the inner
side of which it is situated ; towards the junction of
the middle with the lower third of the posterior
surface of the thigh, its fleshy belly becomes
narrower, and is replaced by a long, thin tendon
(13, Fig. Z2) which inchnes inwards, and passes
behind the internal condyle of the femur, describing
a slight curve with its concavity forwards behind the
tendons of the sartorius and gracilis. With them
(pages 258 and 264) it is inserted into the upper part
of the internal surface of the shaft of the tibia (24,
Fig. 86). This muscle flexes the leg, and in this

Muscles of the Pelvis and Thigh, 267

movement the prominence of its tendon starts out as
the internal boundary of the region of the ham.

The semi-memhranosiis is broader than the semi-
tendinosus (7, Fig. 83). It is situated beneath it and
projects beyond it on both sides. It is so called be-
cause its upper half is formed by a broad membranous
tendon arising from the tuberosity of the ischium.
The muscular fibres commence below the middle of
the thigh and form a large fleshy belly, thick, broad,
and short, which passes into a strong tendon (14,
Fig. Z2) inserted mainly into the posterior surface of
the internal tuberosity of the tibia.

The fleshy belly of this muscle projects beyond
the tendon of the semi-tendinosus on each side, and
reaches to the middle line of the posterior surface
of the thigh and knee, forming a large muscular
prominence. When the leg is flexed on the thigh,
the tendons of the biceps and semi-tendinosus be-
come prominent, bounding a deep pit (the ham or
popliteal space) corresponding to the upper part of
the posterior surface of the knee, and the fleshy
part of the semi-membranosus remains hidden in the
bottom of this pit ; but when the leg is extended on
the thigh there is no longer a hollow, but the pos-
terior surface of the knee presents, on the contrary,
a prominent form, produced in the upper part by
the fleshy mass of the semi-membranosus, and in
the lower part by the muscles of the calf, to be
described in the next chapter.

268

CHAPTER XXIII.

MUSCLES OF THE LEG AND FOOT.

General arrangement of the muscles with regard to the skeleton. — Anterior
muscles of the leg {tibialis anticus and extensors^. — External or
peroneal muscles ; relations of the peroneus longus with the sole of the
foot ; its influence on the form of the foot. — Posterior muscles ;
gastrocnemius (details of its composition and form). Soleus muscle,
plantaris, tendo A chillis. — Muscles of the foot; 1st, dorsum of foot
{extensor brevis muscle) ; 2nd, muscles of the sole of the foot.

Muscles of the leg. — The arrangement of the
skeleton of the leg (tibia and fibula) is such that we
might expect a priori to find four muscular masses,
one on each of the surfaces of the skeleton, but as
the internal surface of the tibia is subcutaneous (2,
Fig. 84), is not covered by any muscle, and is over-
lapped by the anterior and posterior fleshy masses, it
forms a long flat surface, slightly hollowed, extending
from the inner side of the knee to the internal
malleolus. The leg, therefore, presents for our study
only three groups of muscles, occupying respectively
the anterior or antero-external, the external or
peroneal, and the posterior regions of the limb.

I. Anterior ynnscles (Fig. 84). — Arranged in the
space which separates the fibula from the tibia, the
muscles on the front of the leg are three in number,
called, from within outwards, the tibialis anticus,
the extensor proprius halLucis, and the extensor longus
digitorum.

Muscles of the Leg and Foot. 269

The tibialis anticus (3, Fig. 84) arises from the
external surface of the tibia, and from the deep fascia
over it (page 146), and descends obliquely downwards
and inwards in the form of a prismatic or fusiform
fleshy mass, of which the lower end gradually
narrows, to be replaced by a strong tendon in the
lower third of the leg. This tendon, inclining more and
more to the inner side (2, Fig. ^6), passes obliquely
over the anterior surface of the lower end of the tibia, in
front of the internal malleolus. It glides beneath the
anterior annular ligament of the ankle, and reaches
the inner part of the dorsum of the foot (3, Fig. 86),
where it is inserted into the internal cuneiform, and
the base of the first metatarsal bone. It flexes the
foot on the leg, and inverts it, since it draws the
dorsal surface of the foot towards the anterior surface
of the leg, while at the same time it turns the foot
inwards, and slightly raises its inner border. This
muscle, during contraction, shows externally all the
details of its shape — in the leg a fleshy mass which
slightly overlaps the anterior border of the tibia or
shin, and in front of the ankle an oblique cord
marking clearly the direction of the tendon.

The extensor proprius hallucis (5, Fig. 84) is con-
cealed at its origin between the tibialis anticus and the
extensor longus digitorum. Only its tendon appears
superficially (2, Fig. 85) in the lower third of the front
of the leg, on the outer side of the tendon of the tibialis
anticus. It passes beneath the annular ligament of
the ankle and along the inner part of the dorsal
surface of the foot (4, Fig. Z())j to be inserted into the
base of the terminal phalanx of the great toe. When
the great toe is forcibly turned up during extension

2/0

Artistic Anatomy.

this tendon is clearly shown throughout its entire

course. In a normal foot this
tendon occupies a straight line
from the middle of the ankle-
joint to the great toe, and the
inner border of the foot and
great toe should be parallel
to it. In other words, the
great toe should be in a line
with the inner border of the
foot (Fig. 52, page 151).

The extensor longiis digit-
orum (4, Fig. 84) arises from
the external tuberosity of the
tijDia, on the outer side of the
tibialis anticus, and from the
upper three-fourths of the
anterior surface of the fibula.
It descends vertically, and ter-
minates in a tendon divided
into slips, which remain as-
sociated together (3, Fig. 85)
to pass beneath the anterior
annular ligament. Immedi-
ately afterwafds, these slips
spread out like a fan (4, Fig. 85)
in the form of four tendons,
which pass over the dorsum of
the foot to be inserted into the
second and third phalanges of
the four outer toes. Each
tendon behaves like the cor-
responding extensor tendon in

Fig. S4.

Muscles of the Anterior
Region of the Leg. — i, ten-
don of the rectus femoris ; —
2, tibia ;— 3, the anterior tibial
muscle;— 4, the long exten-
sor of the toes;— 5, the proper
extensor of the great toe ;— 6,
the peroneus tertius;— 7 and 8,
the peroneus longus and brevis ;
— 9, the external head of the
gastrocnemius;— lo.the internal
head of the gastrocnemius ; —
II, extensor brevis digitorum ;
—12, the superior annular liga-
m'^nt of the dorsum of the foot.

Muscles of the Leg and Foot. 271

the hand. It forms a membranous expansion on the
dorsum of the first phalanx, joined by the tendons of
the extensor brevis digitorum, lumbricals, and inter-
ossei muscles, and completes the capsule of the meta-
tarso-phalangeal joint. Thereafter each tendon splits
into three parts — one central and two lateral. The
central slip is inserted into the intermediate phalanx,
and the two lateral slips, reunited, are attached to
the base of the terminal phalanx. Associated with
the extensor longus digitorum is the pero7ieits
tertius, an essentially human muscle, which has a
common origin with the long extensor. Its tendon
accompanies those of the last-named muscle beneath
the annular ligament, and is directed outwards on
the dorsum of the foot, to be inserted into the base
of the fifth metatarsal bone. With the tibialis anticus
the long extensor of the toes and peroneus tertius
flex the foot on the leg, while at the same time the
common extensor extends the toes on the foot. In
this action it shows the prominence of its fleshy
belly especially at the middle of the leg, and the
tendons on the back of the foot are raised up
like diverging cords. The peroneus tertius raises the
outer border of the foot in such movements as skat-
ing and dancing, and it is only then that its promi-
nence shows beneath the skin. Usually it is but
little marked.

II. External muscles (Fig. 85). — These are two
in number, placed on the outer side of the fibulaj
and called the peroneal fmiscles. They are distin-
guished as the peroneus longus and peroneus brevis.
They completely cover the outer surface of the
fibula, the peroneus longus arising from the upper

2/2

Artistic Anatomy.

two-thirds, the peroneus brevis from the lower two-
thirds of the bone^ The peroneus longus is behind and

above, the peroneus brevis in
front and below. Their tendons
descend together and pass be-
neath the external annular
ligament ; that of the peroneus
brevis h^ing next the bone and
grooving the back of the ex-
ternal malleolus. Windinground
the malleolus as on a pulley,
they are directed forwards on
to the outer border of the foot.
Then only the tendons sepa-
rate from each other, to be
inserted into the foot at two
points diametrically opposite.
One (that of the peroneus
brevis) is directed horizontally
forwards, on the outer surface
of the foot (lo, Fig. 85), to
be inserted into the base or
posterior extremity of the fifth
metatarsal bone ; while the
other, that of the
peroneus longus, is
directed obliquely
forwards and down-

1:)

Fig. 85.
MuscLKS OF Tiii; Leg (external surface).— i, i, the anterior tibial muscle;—
2, 2, the tendon of the extensor proprius hallucis; — 3, 3, the extensor longus digi-
torum with its tendons (4, 5, and 6) ;— 7, the peroneus longus and its tendon (8);—
9, peroneus brevis and its tendon (10) ;— 11, the external head of the gastrocnemius ;
12, 12, the soleus ;— 13, tendo Achillis ; — 14, extensor brevis digitorum ; — 15, ab-
ductor minimi digiti ;— 16, the rectus femoris ;— 17, 18, vastus externus ; — 19, tendon
of the biceps femoris ;— 20, external lateral ligament of the knee.

Muscles of the Leg and Foot. 273

wards so as to reach the sole of the foot, beneath
which it passes, lying in the groove of the cuboid
bone ; it then runs obliquely across the sole of the
foot, from the outer towards the inner border, deeply
hidden by the plantar muscles and ligaments, and is
finally inserted into the posterior extremity of the
first metatarsal bone and the under surface of the
internal cuneiform bone.

These two muscles, but especially the peroneus
brevis, extend and turn the foot outwards, while at
the same time they raise its external border ; so that
their action is the reverse of that of the tibialis
a.nticus. But the peroneus longus has another
important function which explains why the muscle
becomes prominent whenever a particular effort is
demanded of the foot, as, for example, when it
is carried forward in dancing, or in the act of
imparting motion to an object. This muscle, owing to
the arrangement of its tendon, which passes like the
string of a bow across the hollow of the sole of
the foot, acts by deepening this hollow ; it therefore
raises the plantar arch, marked on the dorsal surface
by an increase of the curve of the foot.

III. Posterior muscles (Figs. 82, Z^). — The back of
the leg is thick and fleshy, and is formed by nume-
rous and powerful muscles, divided into two groups :
the superficial group, which we shall describe in
detail, and the deep group, for which a few words

will be sufficient.

The superficial group is formed by the gastroc-
nemius, plantar is, and soleits muscles.

The gastrocnemius muscle (Yacrr^p, belly : xvy^ybv,,
leg) is responsible for the surface form of the

2/4 Artistic Anatomy.

prominence of the calf. It consists of two large,
fleshy masses known as the inner and outer heads,
which arise respectively from the upper part of
the inner and outer condyles of the femur on
their outer aspect. Overlapped by the insertions
of the hamstring muscles, the two heads of the
gastrocnemius form the lower boundaries of the
popliteal space. They converge at its lower angle to
be inserted (separately) into a broad membranous
tendon, which forms the beginning of the tendo
Achillis (6, Fig. d^y). At their origins, each head pos-
sesses a tendon which covers its superficial surface.
At the insertion the tendon passes upwards for a
considerable distance on their deep surfaces. At its
insertion into the tendo Achillis, each fleshy head
presents a rounded lower border ; and it is to be
particularly noted that the inner head of the muscle
usually descends to a level lower than that of the
outer head.

This muscle bends the knee and extends the foot
on the leg. Through the tendo Achillis it acts on
the calcaneum or bone of the heel so as to raise the
heel and cause the living model, if erect, to rise on
the toes. Now the constitution of the muscle is
such that its external form is quite different when it is
in repose and when it is in contraction. Each head of
the muscle, as already stated, possesses at its origin
a membranous tendon, which expands over the
outer part of the surface, but the inner part of each
belly is fleshy. In a state of repose the two halve?
of the muscle unite in the same rounded and promi-
nent shape, so that we cannot distinguish the part
covered by the aponeurotic expansion of tendon

Muscles of the Leg and Foot.

275

from the part formed by free muscular fibres. But
when the hving model rises on
the balls of the toes, or in any
other movement produced by
a powerful contraction of the
muscle, we see the free flesh v
part of each head swell up more (
strongly than the part covered
and tied down by the aponeur-
osis. At that moment, there-
fore, the whole convex form ot
the calf presents a slight ovoid
surface on each side, and a long
vertical prominence in the
middle line. This prominence
is produced by the mesial mus-
cular parts of the two heads of
the muscle, which approach
each other during contraction,
and unite their double mass in
a single median prominence.
Fig. %2j by the differences in
shading, enables us to distinguish
the aponeurotic from the mus-
cular parts, and to
observe the important
details of shape into
the study of which
we have entered.

*■ Muscles of the Leg (internal surface). — i,

tibialis anticus ; — 2 and 3, its tendon ; — 4, tendon of the extensor proprius hallucis ;
— 5 and 6, internal head of the gastrocnemius ; — 7, soleus ;— 8, tendo Achillis ; — 9, its
attachment to the os calcis ; — 10, tendon of the plantaris muscle ; — 11 and 12, tendon
of the tibialis posticus; — i3andi4,tendonof the flexor longusdigitorum;— 15, tendon
of the flexor longus hallucis ; — 16, 16, abductor hallucis ; — 17, vastus internus ;— 18,
19, 20, sartorius ; — 21, 22, gracilis ; — 23, semi-membranosus ; — 24, semi-tendinosus.

Fig. 86.

276 Artistic Anatomy.

The clear or aponeurotic parts correspond to the
two flat surfaces already mentioned, and the shaded
or fleshy parts correspond to the median prominence,
with this difference, that in the calf in contraction,
this median prominence is smoother than in Fig. %2,
the two halves which compose it being merged into
a single mass, except at the angular space above the
point where they bound the popliteal space.

We will now return to what we have already said
(see page 2^^^]) relative to the posterior region of the
knee, examined in the living model in extension of
the leg. If the model rises on the balls of the toes
it is no longer possible to speak of the popliteal space
as a hollow at the back of the knee. Under these
conditions, the prominences (already studied) of the
biceps, semi-membranosus, and gastrocnemius almost
join each other, and the plantaris muscle, of which we
will speak immediately, helps to fill up the space ;
the region of the popliteal space forms in reality a
prominence, and the posterior surface of the knee is
marked in its central portion by a strong muscular
projection of which it is not possible to understand
the cause except by an attentive study of the muscles
named.

The soleiLs muscle, so called because its form
has been compared to that of a sole (Latin — solea)^
is placed beneath the gastrocnemius, which over-
laps it, more on the inner (7, Fig. 86) than on the
outer border (12, Fig. 85) of the calf. In its
action it is simple. It only acts on the ankle-
joint, as a powerful extensor of the foot. Arising
from the back of the fibula and from the tibia,
its fibres are inserted below into the deep surface

Muscles of the Leg and Foot, 277

of the tendo Achillis to within two inches of the
heel.

The tendo Achillis is a strong band of fibrous
tissue occupying the lower part of the back of
the leg. Membranous above, where it is continued
upwards on the deep surface of the bellies of the
gastrocnemius muscle, it becomes narrower and
thicker below as it approaches the heel. Broaden-
ing out slightly at its lower end, it is inserted
into the interior half of the posterior surface of
the calcaneum, forming the prominence of the heel.
In a muscular leg the fibres of the soleus may
be shown superficially, bulging beyond the tendo
Achillis at its outer and inner borders, below the
outline of the gastrocnemius, and more on the outer
than on the inner side (5, Fig. 82, page 263).

The plantaris is a small, insignificant muscle
of which the fleshy origin (6, Fig. d>2) is from
the outer condyle of the femur, under cover of
the outer head of the gastrocnemius muscle. Its
small fleshy belly is succeeded by a long, thin
tendon (7, Fig. ^2), which descends obliquely
between the gastrocnemius and the soleus to reach
the inner border of the tendo Achillis, along which
it descends (10, Fig. ^6), Sometimes it is united
with this tendon early in its course, and some-
times it reaches the calcaneum, or it may join the
internal annular ligament at the ankle.

The deep muscles of the back of the leg are
not visible on the model except on the inner
side above the ankle. Here, on the inner side of
the tendo Achillis (8, Fig. ^2)j is placed a series
of tendons, proceeding in the interval between the

278

Artistic Anatomy.

internal malleolus and the calcaneum to the foot.
Tlie muscles are the tibialis posticus, the flexor
longus digitorum, and the flexor
longus hallucis. The fleshy bellies
of these muscles, deeply hidden be-
neath the superficial muscles, arise
from the posterior surface of the
tibia, from the fibula, and from the in-
terosseous membrane. Their tendons
descend obliquely over the back of
the internal malleolus, where those
of the tibialis posticus and the
common flexor of the toes alone are
visible (the tendon of the flexor pro-
prius hallucis being almost entirely
hidden beneath the tendo Achillis).
From this they are reflected over the
internal malleolus and pass into the
sole of the foot, bound down on
the inner side of the ankle by the
dense band of the internal anmdar
ligament. The tibialis posticus is
almost immediately inserted by
radiating bands into most of the
tarsal and metatarsal bones (12,
Fig. ^6), and the other two
tendons reach the toes, where
they are inserted in the same
manner as we have already de-
scribed for the tendons of the
' flexor longus pollicis and the deep
flexor of the fingers in the hand.

Muscles of the foot. — The muscles of the foot

Fig. 87.
The Muscles of the
Calf. — i, biceps; — 2,
semi-tend inosus ;— 3,
poi)liteal space ; — 4, gas-
trocnemius ;— 5, 5, so-
leus ; — 6, tendo Achillis ;
— 7, OS calcis, 8, peroneus
longus ;— 9, tibialis pos-
ticus and flexor longus
digitorum.

Muscles of the Leg and Foot. 279

include not only the muscles of the plantar region,
corresponding to the palm of the hand, but also the
tendons on the dorsum of the foot, and a special
extensor muscle, the extensor brevis digitoriun.

The tendons of muscles on the dorsum of the foot
have already been described (p. 270). The extensor
brevis digitorum muscle (11, Fig. 84, and 14, Fig. 85)
consists of a short, fleshy belly placed obliquely on
the dorsum of the foot, and extending from behind
inwards and forwards. It origin is rounded and
attached to the upper surface of the calcaneum in the
cavity or canal of the tarsus (page 155), external
to the astragalus. From this origin it is directed
forwa'rds and inwards ; becoming broader, it passes
beneath the tendons of the common extensor and
immediately divides into four muscular slips, each of
which has a tendon attached to it. These tendons
pass under those of the common extensor, so as to
form with them a figure with lozenge-shaped spaces,
and proceed to the four inner toes to be inserted, in
the case of the great toe, into the base of the first
phalanx ; uniting, in the case of the second, third, and
fourth toes, with the expansions of the extensor
tendons on the dorsum of the phalanges. This
muscle aids in the extension of the toes, and by its
obliquity counteracts the action of the long extensor.
When it contracts, the portion of the muscle situated
on the outer side of the tendons of the long extensor
become very prominent, not being tied down by
anything, and this prominence is still clearer because
behind it is a depression, more or less evident, corre-
sponding to the calcaneo-astragaloid cavity of the
tarsus.

28o Artistic Anatomy.

We will not describe at length the muscles of the
sole of the foot with regard to form. The foot
derives most of its characteristics from its bony
structure ; the muscles of the sole round off by their
presence the angles of the skeleton and fill up the
cavities, but do not modify essentially the bony
forms. On the other hand, these numerous muscles
are in general but poorly developed, and they are to
a large extent united into common masses, which
makes it difficult, except for the skilled anatomist, to
isolate and recognise distinctly each fleshy belly.
It is therefore useless for an artist to enter into a
detailed study of these muscles, which reproduce in
their general arrangement the distribution of the
muscles of the hand. We will content ourselves,
then, by saying that the sole of the foot, like the
palm of the hand, possesses three muscular masses —
I St. An internal group (i6, Fig. ^d)^ belonging to the
great toe, formed by the abductor halliicis, which
arises from the calcaneum, and by the flexor brevis,
the adductor transversiiSy and adductor obliquus
halluciSf which arise from the anterior bones of the
tarsus and from the metatarsus ; 2nd. An external
group (15, Fig. 86), belonging to the little toe, formed
by the abductor^ which arises from the calcaneum,
and \1\Q flexor brevis, from the cuboid ; 3rd. Finall}^,
a central mass, formed by t\iQ flexor brevis digitorum,
the long flexor tendons, lumbricals, and inter ossei —
which in a sense repeat what we have said regarding
the muscles of the same name, more easily studied,
in the hand.

28 1

CHAPTER XXIV.

MUSCLES OF THE NECK.

Lateral and anterior regions of the neck. — Sterno-mastoid muscles. The
anterior triangle ; infra-hyoid and supra-hyoid regions. — Organs con-
tained in the neck (vertebral column, oesophagus, and trachea). — Infra-
hyoid muscles — omo-hyoid, stemo-hyoid, sterno- thyroid, and thyro-
hyoid.— Supra-hyoid muscles — digastric, stylo-hyoid, and mylo-hyoid.

Muscles of the neck, — We have already, in treat-
ing of the trapezius, studied the muscular structure
and form of the posterior region of the neck, and
the details have been described of the upper part
of the side of the neck, and the oblique longitudinal
groove between the anterior border of the trapezius
and the posterior border of the sterno-cleido-mastoid
(pages 208 and 210). It now remains to examine
the inferior part of this groove and all the anterior
region of the neck. This study should begin with
that of the sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles, which
have the most important influence on the form of
this region, and which by their direction map out
on the anterior surface of the neck a muscular
interval or space in which it will be easy to study
the deeply placed muscles.

The sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles are two in
number, one on each side of the neck, extending
from the upper limit of the thorax, obliquely upwards
and backwards, to the base of the skull (19, Fig. ^'S).
The muscle arises below by two heads — one internal

282 Artistic Anatomy.

or sternal, which arises by a strong tendon from the
front of the first piece of the sternum (i8, Fig. 70,
page 197), the other external or clavicular, which
arises in the form of a thin fleshy band from the
inner third of the upper surface of the clavicle, above
the origin of the clavicular portion of the great
pectoral muscle (Fig. d"^^ page 194). These two
heads are directed upwards and backwards, separated
at first by a narrow triangular space, of which the base
corresponds to the sterno-clavicular joint (Fig. 68) ;
they then unite to form a single muscle, broad and
thick, which ascends obliquely towards the skull,
passing behind the angle of the lower jaw and the
ear to be inserted into the surface of the mastoid
process of the temporal bone and the superior curved
line of the occipital bone (16, Fig. 73).

This muscle, being inserted into the skull at a
point which is situated behind the axis of the
movements of flexion and extension of the head,
acts by extending the head on the neck, but to
this movement, usually little marked, it adds the
power of flexing the neck on the trunk. When
both these muscles contract at the same time,
they produce extension of the head on the neck
and flexion of the neck on the thorax ; therefore
we see both clearly marked beneath the skin in
a person lying down who raises his head (by
flexion of the neck). When one muscle only con-
tracts, it turns the face to the opposite side ;
therefore in the living model whose face is turned
to the right the face turns to this side by the con-
traction of the left sterno-cleido-mastoid muscle, of
which the prominence is well shown beneath the

Muscles of the Neck. 283

skin as a broad band, passing from the sternum to
the mastoid process of the temporal bone. There
are various attitudes in which this prominence is
particularly remarkable, as when we carry the head
quickly to one side to answer a question or give
an order ; or in the act of listening intently, when
we concentrate our attention to one side and
extend the head a little, turning the region of
the ear upwards and forwards, an attitude in which
the sterno-mastoid becomes particularly prominent
beneath the skin of the neck.

From their insertions and direction we see
that these two muscles are v^ery close to each
other below and wide apart above. Stretching
diagonally across the side of the neck, each muscle
forms the interval between two triangular spaces
— the posterior triangle- behind, bounded by the
sterno-mastoid, trapezius, and the clavicle (below) ;
and the anterior triangle in front, bounded by the
sterno-mastoid, the middle line of the neck in front,
and the lower jaw above. The anterior triangles
of the two sides comprise together the space be-
tween the two sterno-cleido-mastoid muscles. This
space is in the form of a triangle, with its apex
below, corresponding to the episternal notch, and
its base above, formed by the whole breadth of
the lower jaw. This triangle is the anterior region
of the neck, divided into two parts by the presence
of the hyoid bone — a small bone without direct
connection with the rest of the skeleton, and
placed transversely above the prominence of the
larynx {2^^ Fig. 88). The lower part forms a
vertical plane, oblique downwards and backwards.

284 Artistic Anatomy.

and sinking behind the sternum ; this is the infra-
hyoid region, containing the infra-hyoid muscles.
The upper part of the .area forms a plane approach-
ing more or less the horizontal, proceeding from
the hyoid bone to the chin and the circumference
of the lower jaw ; this is the supra-hyoid region,
or that of the chin, containing the supra-hyoid
muscles.

Before entering further into the description of
these regions we must point out the presence of
several organs which, placed in front of the vertebral
column, project forwards in the space between
the sterno-mastoid muscles. In the middle line
of the neck, the region above the hyoid bone
corresponds to the floor of the mouth, in which
the tongue lies, having on each side large salivary
glands partly concealed by the lower jaw ; below^ the
depression corresponding to the hyoid bone appear
the cartilages of the larynx — the thyroid (pomum
Adami), projecting forwards, and more marked in the
male than in the female, and the cricoid cartilage,
to which the windpipe or trachea is attached.
Separating the tongue and larynx from the vertebral
column is the cavity of the pharynx, which is con-
tinuous below the cricoid cartilage, with the gullet or
oesophagus, situated behind the windpipe or trachea.
The oesophagus is soft and fleshy, with a cavity
effaced when empty. The trachea, which on account
of its functions is always open, is formed of incomplete
cartilaginous rings, which give it an almost cyhndrical
form and render it prominent below in the middle
line of the neck. Crossing the upper part of the
trachea is the median part of a gland known as

Muscles of the Neck.

285

Fig. 88.

Muscles of the Neck and Face. — i, frontal ; — 2, occipital ; — 3, aponeurosis
of the occipito-frontalis ; — 4, temporal ; — 6, orbicularis palpebrarum ; — 7, levator
labii superioris et alae nasi ; — 8, dilator naris anterior and posterior ; — g, compressor
naris ;— 9', pyramidalis nasi ;— 10, zygomaticus minor; — 11, zygomaticus major ; —
12, masseter ; — 13, levator anguli oris ; — 14, levator labii superioris ; — 15, orbicularis
oris;— 16, buccinator ; — 16', depressor anguli oris, or triangularis oris ; — 17, depressor
labii inferioris, or quadratus menti ; — 19, sterno-cleido-mastoid ; — 20, trapezius; —
21, digastric and stylo-hyoid ; — 22, anterior belly of the digastric ; — 24, omo-hyoid ;—
25, sterno-hyoid ; — 26, thyro-hyoid; — 27, mylo-hyoid ; — 28, 29, splenius.

the thyroid body, which in some cases (especially
in the female) may form a slight rounded projection
in the infra-hyoid region of the neck.

The infra-hyoid inuscles ascend from the back
of the sternum, inside the thorax, towards the lower

286 Artistic Anatomy.

border of the hyoid bone. They are four in number
— two superficial (the omo-hyoid and sterno-hyoid)
and two deep (the sterno-thyroid and thyro-
hyoid).

The omo-hyoid (24, Fig. 88 ; 17, 18, Fig. 89) is a
small muscle, long and slender, with a very remark-
able course. It consists of two fleshy bellies with an
intermediate tendon. It arises from the upper border
of the scapula near the root of the coracoid process,
and is directed at first obliquely forwards and inwards
behind the clavicle ; after crossing the posterior
triangle it turns on itself, and is directed upwards
beneath the sterno-mastoid and through the anterior
triangle to be inserted into the lateral part of the
lower border of the hyoid bone. This muscle,
covered at first by the trapezius and then by the
sterno-mastoid, is thus visible on the model in
only two parts of its course — in front of the sterno-
mastoid, where its anterior belly appears over the
trachea, and again in the posterior triangle, where its
posterior belly occupies the lower portion of the
groove which separates the trapezius from the
sterno-mastoid. Although deeply placed, this muscle
becomes visible beneath the skin, for it is brought
into sharp relief during certain actions. Evidently,
from its slender form, we cannot expect it to be
an important elevator of the scapula ; but it serves
to depress the hyoid bone. The most important
function of the muscle is by its contraction, especially
during spasmodic efforts in respiration, as in the
strong inspiration in sighing or sobbing ; in such cases
it prevents the skin and loose aponeurotic tissue from
being too strongly depressed in the supra-clavicular

Muscles of the Neck. 287

fossa by atmospheric pressure. Therefore, if the
neck is thin and the fossa well marked, as in an
aged female, during the movements of sobbing or
abrupt respiration a cord corresponding to the
posterior belly of the omo-hyoid muscle may be
clearly seen in the supra-clavicular fossa.

The sterno-hyoid (25, Fig, 88 ; 14, Fig. 89)
forms a long, thin, fleshy band, extending from the
back of the sternum and clavicle upwards to the
lower border of the hyoid bone. Both these muscles
are contiguous to each other by their internal borders
above, but below, at the deep median fossa corre-
sponding to the episternal notch, they are separated
by a narrow angular space, in which appear the
trachea and the inner border of the sterno-thyroid
muscle.

The two deep muscles of this region (the sterno-
thyroid and thyro-hyoid) are continuous with one
another. They lie beneath the sterno-hyoid and
omo-hyoid muscles, and cover the trachea and larynx
in the front of the neck. The sterno-thyroid muscle
arises from the posterior part of the first piece of the
sternum, and ascends vertically beneath the sterno-
hyoid. It appears at the inner border of the sterno-
hyoid at the lower part of the neck on each side
of the middle hne (Fig. 68) ; reaching the thyroid
cartilage, it is inserted into an obhque line on its
external surface. The thyro-hyoid muscle arising
from this oblique line on the thyroid cartilage
ascends to be inserted into the hyoid bone.

The supra-hyoid muscles proceed from the hyoid
bone to the base of the skull and lower jaw, and by
their contraction elevate this bone, as can be easily

288

Artistic Anatomy.

observed in those who bring into action the pharynx
or larynx, as in the act of singing or swallowing.
The first of these supra-hyoid muscles is the digastric
muscle, composed of two fleshy bellies connected
together by an intermediate tendon (i, 2, Fig. 89).

Fig. 89.

The Muscles of the Neck.— i, digastric (posterior belly) ;— 2, digastric
(anterior belly) ; — 3. hyoid bone ;— 4, stylo-hyoid ;— 5, mylo-hyoid ; — 6, genio-
hyoid ; — 7, stylo-glossus ;— 8, hyo-glossus ",—9, internal pterygoid ; — 10, stylo-
pharyngeus ; — 11, sterno-cleido-mastoid ; — 12, sterno-clcido-mastoid (sternal
head) ; — 13, sterno-clcido-mastoid (clavicular head); — 14, sterno-hyoid ; — 15, sterno-
thyroid ; — 16, thyro-hyoid ;— 17, omo-hyoid (anterior belly) ;— 18, omo-hyoid
(posterior belly) ; — 19, trapezius ; — 20, clavicle ; — 21, scalenus posticus.

The posterior belly connects the h3^oid bone with the
under-surface of the mastoid process ; the anterior
belly connects the hyoid bone to the lower border of
the lower jaw near the chin. Next come two other
muscles- -one behind, lying alongside the posterior
belly of the digastric, and called the stylo-hyoid (4,
Fig. 89), and another in front, called the mylo-hyoid

Muscles of the Neck, 289

(5, Fig. 89) ; this muscle lies underneath the anterior
belly, and extends between the hyoid bone and the
deep surface of the body of the lower jaw. It thus
forms a partition closing in the floor of the mouth on
each side of the tongue.

The digastric muscle arises from the under-
surface of the mastoid process of the temporal bone.
From this origin its fusiform posterior belly descends
obliquely downwards and forwards, and near the
hyoid bone is replaced by a round tendon. This
tendon is attached by a fibrous pulley to the hyoid
bone, and, taking its fixed point here, it turns abruptly,
so as to be directed obhquely upwards and forwards
towards the chin ; at the same time this tendon
is soon replaced by the anterior belly, also fusiform,
which is inserted on the posterior surface of the
symphysis of the chin, into a small depression
called the digastric fossa. We see that this muscle,
with its two bellies, is admirably arranged to raise
the hyoid bone, and consequently the whole ot
the larynx ; for the anterior belly carries the
hyoid bone upwards and forwards, the other up-
wards and backwards, and if the two contract at
the same time they will raise the hyoid bone
directly upwards.

The stylo-hyoid is a small muscular fasciculus
which accompanies the posterior belly of the
digastric (21, Fig. ^2>). Arising from the styloid
process of the temporal bone, this muscle passes
downwards and forwards beneath the posterior
belly of the digastric, with which it is closely
connected ; at the level of the hyoid bone the
tendon of the digastric pierces the stylo-hyoid,

T

290 Artistic Anatomy.

and the latter terminates by an aponeurotic slip
which is inserted into the lateral part of the hyoid
bone. On the model the stylo-hyoid and digastric
are united in one cylindrical bundle (Fig. Z%).

The mylo-hyoid muscle {2*]^ Fig. 88) forms the
floor of the cavity of the mouth. It constitutes
a quadrilateral fleshy plane, attached by its upper
border to the inner surface of the body of the
lower jaw in a prominent oblique hne ; by its
inferior border it is inserted into the hyoid bone.
Above the hyoid bone the mylo-hyoid muscles
are also inserted in the middle line into a fibrous
raphe, so that the two muscles, that of the right
and left side, form practically a single layer con-
stituting the floor of the mouth. This muscle is
covered on its deep surface by the mucous mem-
brane of the mouth and by the fleshy fibres
of muscles which are not visible externally, and
which, arising firom the small tubercles developed
on the posterior surface of the symphysis of the
chin (^genial tubercles), are inserted either into the
hyoid bone {geiiio-hyoid) (6, Fig. 89) or into the
tongue {geiiio-hyo-glossiis). The mylo-hyoid muscles,
like the previous muscles, assist in raising the hyoid
bone and larynx ; it is to be noted, too, that the
supra-hyoid muscles also act in depressing the lower
jaw and opening the mouth.

291

CHAPTER XXV.

MUSCLES OF THE HEAD.

rst. Muscles oUnastication ; masseter, its form, its share in the physiognomy
(character of firmness, of violence) ; temporal nrnscle. 2nd. Muscles
of expression ; nature and special mechanism of the muscles of the skin ;
object of their study (expression of actual passion, momentary and not
characteristic of the subject). — History of the question. — Leonardo da
Vinci, Le Brun, Camper, Charles Bell, Lavater, Sue, Humbert de
Superville. — Particular interest of the drawings given by Humbert de
Superville (" Unknown Signs of Art "). — Duchenne of Boulogne and the
experimental method applied to the study of physiognomy. — Darwin
(physiognomy from the philosophical point of view, and evolution).

The muscles of the head with few exceptions occupy
the anterior region of the head and more particu-
larly the face. They are divided into two very
distinct classes — ist, the muscles which serve for
mastication and move the lower jaw ; and 2nd, the
muscles which, under the influence of emotion,
modify the traits of the countenance and serve for
the expression of the emotions. We call these the
muscles of expression.

The muscles of mastication present the general
arrangement that we have already met with in the
various muscles of the trunk and limbs. They are
attached to the bones, and they have fleshy bellies,
more or less thick, which swell up in contraction,
and are marked by prominences, just as the con-
traction of the biceps is shown by the promi-

292 Artistic Anatomy.

nence it produces on the anterior surface of the
arm. The muscles of expression, on the contrary,
present a different type. These are muscles of the
skiuy which move the skin and not the parts of the
skeleton ; therefore their fleshy parts are in general
very slender, and their contraction is not marked by
any local sweUing corresponding to the fleshy body,
but only by change in place and form of the folds
and membranous structures of the face (eyelids, lips,
etc.). We will first study the muscles of mastica-
tion.

Muscles of masticatio7i. — The muscles which
move the lower jaw are inserted into the ramus and
angle of the bone. Those on the inner side of the
jaw are the deeply placed pterygoid muscles (so
called because they arise from the pterygoid process
of the sphenoid bone). We need not dwell on these
muscles here, for they are deeply hidden in the
zygomatic fossa of the head, and are not visible in
any part on the surface. Those on the outer side are
inserted either into the ramus and angle of the bone
(masseter muscle) or into the coronoid process (tem-
poral muscle).

The masseter muscle is a quadrilateral flesh)' mass
(12, Fig. 88) of which the upper attachment arises from
the zygomatic arch (Fig. 56), and the lower attach-
ment is inserted into the ramus and angle of the jaw.
The anterior border of this muscle is thick, and in
thin subjects forms a prominence, in front of which
the cheeks are sunk so as to produce a more or less
marked depression. In contraction the masseter
raises the lower jaw and brings it into contact with
the upper, against which it presses strongly. It

Muscles of the Head. 293

would be superfluous to dwell here on the part this
muscle plays in mastication. It is more important to
remark that during violent emotions, or even when
we accomplish a powerful effort, we involuntarily
clench the jaws. Contracting the masseter, therefore,
in anger, menace, and in the strong expression which
we characterise commonly by saying that the subject
grinds his teeth, we see the masseter shown in the
form of a quadrilateral prominence on the side of the
face. Therefore the accentuation of the form of the
masseter contributes to give to the physiognomy an
energetic expression, and generally that of brute force.
The temporal fnuscle (4, Fig. ^^) occupies the
entire extent of the temporal fossa of the skull
(Fig. 56) ; it arises from the bones that form that
fossa and from an aponeurosis which, arising from the
borders of the fossa, is attached to the upper border
of the zygomatic arch, so as to form a species
of cover {temporal fascia) to the fossa in question.
From these multiple points of origin the fleshy fibres
converge below and form a strong tendon which em-
braces the coronoid process of the inferior maxillary
bone (25, Fig. 56), into which it is inserted. This
muscle raises the lower jaw, but as it is shut up,
so to speak, in a close space (temporal fossa and
aponeurotic cover) it does not show during its con-
traction a remarkable prominence in the temporal
region ; nevertheless, in a person performing the
movements of mastication we see the skin of the
temple, above the zygomatic arch, slightly raised
in a series of rhythmical movements ; these move-
ments alone show externally the contractions of this
muscle during mastication.

294 Artistic Anatomy.

Muscles of expression. — From what we have
already said respecting the pecuhar arrangement of
these muscles of the skin, it is easy to understand
that their study must be undertaken in a totally
different manner from that of the muscles of the
skeleton. We do not seek so much to define the
form of the fleshy masses as to trace the direction
along which each muscle exercises traction on the
skin. Given the bony or cutaneous attachments of
the muscle, we must observe the direction in which
it acts, and so define the form of the folds or wrinkles
which it causes on the skin, and ascertain what facial
expression is acquired by these changes. Before we
enter into these details, it is necessary to glance
rapidly at the history of this particular question of
human physiognomy, and then to consider the
method by which its study should be undertaken.

First we must remark that we study here, with
regard to the muscles of the face, physiognomy in a
state of action — namely, the characters that affect the
features at a given moment, under the influence of a
passionate movement which causes (it may be) the
involuntary contraction of one of the numerous
muscles of the skin. Indeed, we may almost assert
that the muscles of the face might be given names
associated with mental states — attention^ pain^ menace,
Laughter, sorrow, contempt, disgust, &c. But we can-
not pretend to study physiognomy in a state of
repose, or to learn by the normal and permanent
accentuation of certain of these traits the character
of the subject and the passions that most frequently
disturb him.

Doubtless, these two studies have numerous points

Muscles of the Head. 295

in common ; it is easy to admit that, in a subject
who is governed by one prevaihng or overpowering
emotion, such as suspicion, grief, or pain, the perma-
nent or frequently repeated contraction of the muscles
which correspond to these emotions can definitely
mould the character of the face, so as to leave
imprinted on it in a permanent form the sentiments
that govern the mind.

But this analysis of the character of a subject is
a very delicate study, always very uncertain, and
admitting of philosophical developments which would
carry us far away from the domain of anatomy. On
the other hand, the determination of characteristic
expressions impressed upon the face by the contrac-
tion of this or that muscle has, from the researches
of Duchenne (of Boulogne), become a study which
presents all the precision and certainty that we can
claim from facts strictly deduced from anatomy.

Before the researches of Duchenne, the majority
of books written on expression dealt almost entirely
with physiognomy, or the means of recognising the
character by the study of the habitual state of the
traits of the countenance. We shall, in the first place,
mention the works of Le Brun, Camper, Lavater,
C. Bell, Humbert de Superville, and Sue, and then
we shall refer to the investigations of Duchenne and
Darwin.

Long ago, in the drawings of Leonardo da Vinci,
we find some valuable indications of the state of the
face and neck in the expression of the emotions.
This great master, for example, clearly perceived the
part that the platysma muscle of the neck takes in
the expression of violent passions, and portrayed

296 A R TIS riC A NA TOMY,

the transverse folds which then mark it beneaih the
chin. Le Brun, however, was the first to arrange
studies of this character into a doctrinal series. The
publications in which his views on this subject have
been preserved are numerous."^ The artist will find
there a number of interesting observations, curious
comparisons, and ingenioas explanations. Le Brun
occupied himself principally with the resemblance of
certain types of human physiognomies to the heads
of animals ; in short, he studied physiognomy in
relation to character.

Camper, whose works we have already quoted
respecting the facial angle (page 181), was an anato-
mist and an artist. He analysed the action of
the facial muscles, and it was he who first laid down
this general rule — viz. that the contraction of each
muscle of the face produced in the skin one or more
folds, of which the direction is always at right angles
to that of the muscle, a precept that we shall find to
be true with regard to almost every muscle of the
face, and especially for the frontalis, the great zygo-
matic, &c. Besides the exact observations that the
artist will meet in the works of Camper, he will find
in addition an interesting historical account of the
question.

An English anatomist, Sir Charles Bell, celebrated
for his studies of the nervous system, also analysed
the expressions of the face.f But though his work

• See especially; Conferences sur Vexpression des differents cha-
rac tires des passions, Paris, 1667. (These essays have been reprinted
in the edition of Lavater, by Moreau. Vol. ix., 1820.)

+ The Anatomy and Physiology of Expression (3rd edition, 1884,
published after the death of Sir Charles Bell, and containing his last
corrections.)

Muscles of the Head. 297

affords picturesque descriptions and admirable illus-
trations, it is more interesting to the anatomist than
the artist.

The title of the work of Lavater {The Art oj
Knowing Ma?i by his Coimtenancey^ indicates the
object sought by the author. We find in this work
good illustrations, and curious observations especially
applicable to the study of physiognomy, but fre-
quently without order, without method, and accom-
panied by dissertations on whimsical subjects, such
as the chapters devoted to imaginations and envies^
to warts and beards, and to lines of animality, &c.

In order to have an idea of the manner in which,
at this epoch, authors attempted the study of physio-
gnomy, making this delicate analysis a pure affair
of sentiment, it is sufficient to mention the work of
Sue {Physionomie des Corps Vivants, considire depuis
I* Homme jusqiia la Plante, Paris, 1797.) In the
middle of a long affected treatise on physiognomy
and its relation to the passions, this, for example, is
how he expresses himself concerning the mouth : —
^^ A mouth delicate and pure is perhaps one of the
best recommendations. The beauty of the portal
proclaims the dignity of that which passes through.
Here also is the voice, the interpreter of the heart
and mind, the expression of truth, friendship, and the
most tender sentiments." With regard to the in-
cessant comparison of human physiognomy with
that of animals, the author stops at nothing in this
singular course, and speaks dogmatically on the
physiognomy of fishes, serpents, grasshoppers, and

* The edition to consult is that issued in 1820, in ten volumes, by
Moreau.

298 Artistic Anatomy.

intestinal worms (!), as well as that of man. " Many
fishes/' said he, "are wanting in that which gives
a character of amenity, kindness, and tenderness."
" The intestinal worms have a very decided physio-
gnomy .... the character of their physiognomy
inspires in man sorrow and awe."

Amidst the works of a more serious, though still
empirical character, we must mention in particular
one which, although dealing with the countenance
only in a secondary degree, yet presents several
valuable observations on this subject. We have
endeavoured to utilise these investigations in the
diagrammatic representation of the action of the
muscles of the face. We speak of the treatise ot
Humbert de Superville (JDes Signes Inconscients de
I' Art, 1827). The author gives three drawings of the
human face, in which the lines represent the eyes,
the lower boundary of the nose, and the lips. In
one of these drawings (Fig. 90) the lines are all
horizontal, in the second (Fig. 91) they are all in-
clined downwards and outwards (from the median
line), and in the third (Fig. 92) they are all inclined
upwards and outwards. The author remarks that
the first figure (with the lines horizontal) produces
an impression of calmness, greatness, and constancy ;
and he adds that in the same way in nature and
architecture horizontal lines give rise to the idea of
calmness, stability, and grandeur : the cedar, with its
horizontal branches, is of all the trees the one that
realises this impression in the highest degree. On the
contrary, the second figure (with the lines directed
obliquely downwards) gives an impression of sadness,
pain, and grief; and the author does not fail to

Muscles of the Head. 299

compare the direction of the features of such a
countenance with the direction of the architectural
hues in tombs and' funeral monuments^ and that of
the branches of the trees which everywhere are
planted in preference to others in cemeteries, and
whose branches always hang obliquely. Lastly, the
third figure (with the lines obliquely upwards) gives
rise to the impression of gaiety, laughter, levity,

Fig. go. Fig. 91. Fig. 92.

The Three Figures of Humbert de Superville— (Fig. 90, calmness; Fig. 91,
sadness ; Fig. 92, gaiety).

inconstancy ; and, to continue the preceding com-
parison, everyone must acknowledge that Chinese
architecture, with its lines oblique and diverging up-
wards and outwards, can never — at least, in the eyes
of a European — produce an impression of grandeur
and majesty.

These figures, and the remarks that de Superville
makes afterwards, but which we have not empha-
sised here, are strikingly exact, when we consider the
features in the state of movement or in a moment-
ary expression of emotion. All the muscles which
take part in the expression of pain, sadness, and
contempt help to incline the features obliquely
downwards and outwards, some by acting on the

300 Artistic Anatomy.

outline of the eyes, others on that of the mouth, &c.
On the contrary, the muscles of laughter, raising
its angles, draw the mouth obliquely upwards
and outwards, and — for certain reasons that we
will analyse further on — seems to give a similar
direction to the outline of the eyes. In a word,
features, starting from the state of repose, re-
presented by the first figure of Humbert de Super-
ville (Fig. 90), oscillate in two opposite directions,
either ascending, to express the scale of gaiety
and laughter (in which the features are oblique
upwards and outwards. Fig. 92), or descending —
sadness, pain, and tears (in which the features are
oblique downwards and outwards. Fig. 91). The
exactness of the drawings furnished by Humbert
de Superville for the general expression of the
physiognomy induces us to try, by similar drawings,
to represent the action of each muscle separately.
Knowing the action of a muscle, and knowing from
the photographs of Duchenne the direction that
it imparts to a certain feature of the face, either
to the line of the eyebrows, the opening of the
eyelids, the nostrils, or the lips, we have indicated by
a simple stroke or line these changes, either in
direction or in the form of one of those lines,
and have obtained theoretical figures sufficiently
expressive to characterise the emotion geometrically,
so to speak, in the manifestation of which this
or that muscle is affected. Such are the Figures
96, 98, 100, 102, 103, 104, 106 (page 317 and following),
by means of which we will attempt to explain
the action of each muscle of expression. We may
say that these drawings, without any pretension,

Muscles of the Head. 301

are, so to speak, the primer of the language of
physiognomy.

We now arrive at the history of the work of
Duchenne, to which we owe all that follows.
While all his predecessors had been taken up with
observation, Duchenne introduced the experimental
method into the study of physiognomy. His pro-
cess, simple in conception, was very delicate in
application. His method was to cause the con-
traction of each muscle smgly, and that the expres-
sion that resulted might be appreciated not only
at the moment of the experiment, but again at
any time, and submitted to the judgment of all,
he photographed the subject at the moment when
the muscle was contracted. This last operation was
easily accomplished, but the excitation of a single
muscle was a more delicate operation. Everyone
knows that by electricity, in placing the two electric
needles (the two poles of the current) on the
course of a muscle, we can cause the contraction
of the muscle beneath the skin. But no subject
would lend himself to this experiment. At first
he tried on the dead body of an executed criminal
a short time after death ; but the muscles of the
face lose their excitability two hours after death,
and then it is only by actual exposure of the
muscle and direct stimulation that we can obtain
contraction by the application of electricity. On
the other hand, if we attempt it on any living
subject, we can, it is true, cause a muscle to con-
tract by applying electricity over its site ; but
the electric current, traversing the skin to reach
the muscle, at the same time that it excites the

302 Artistic Anatomy.

motor nerves of the muscle^ excites also the sensory
nerves of the skin and produces acute pain. From
this fact we see that we produce on the face of
the subject; not a simple and characteristic expres-
sion, but a true grimace, or an irregular contraction
of all the muscles under the influence of the pain.
Duchenne had the good fortune to be able to
experiment on a subject in whom a particular in-
firmity rendered impossible the last inconvenience
we have noted. This was an old pensioner of
the hospital who had ancesthesia of the face (az/<x,
absence of; aiaOrjai^j sensibility), in whom the skin
of the countenance was insensible to the most
painful excitation; electricity could be applied to
the skin without producing any painful reaction,
and yet excited the muscles beneath, which had
perfectly preserved their contractility, and performed
their functions as in a normal subject. He could,
therefore^ cause this or that muscle to contract
alone, and could excite, for example, the action
of the great zygomatic, giving to the face the expres-
sion of laughter, without the subject having any
idea of what his physiognomy reflected ; his face,
by the action of the electricity, was laughing,
while his thoughts might be indifferent or fixed
on sad recollections; on the other hand, for ex-
ample, by the contraction of the superciliary muscle,
his countenance might express the most acute pain,
while his thoughts might be quite indifferent or
borne away by gay and pleasant ideas. In a word,
Duchenne was able to realise, under the most
precise conditions of experiment, an exact study
of the uses of the muscles of expression.

Muscles of the Head. 303

The work in which Duchenne has given the result
of his labours is remarkable particularly for the
magnificent atlas of photographs that accompany
it, and which have been obtained by the above
process. From these photographs have been repro-
duced as exactly as possible the several figures that
accompany the descriptions which follow (Figs. 95,
97, 99, loi, page 316 and following). We cannot
enter here into a complete statement of the results
obtained by Duchenne, but we will seek at least to
show the serious and scientific value of these studies,
and to inspire the student to refer to the original
work.

These studies have for the artist this important
result — namely, to prove to him that frequently the
contraction of a single muscle is sufficient to express
an emotion, and that it is not necessary to change all
the features in order to give to the face the stamp ot
pain, attention, menace, contempt, disgust, &c., each
of these sentiments being expressed by a slight modi-
fication, either of the eye alone, or of the lip alone.
Each expression has, so to speak, its own exact,
precise, and separate mark, produced by a single local
modification ; but this local modification seems to be
reflected throughout the physiognomy, and therefore,
from unaided observation, artists had for a long time
believed that, for example, attention and pain were
shown by the combined action of a number of facial
muscles. Now experiment proves that pain may
be expressed solely by a muscle which raises and
wrinkles the brows, and on a face (Fig. 99) where
this muscle alone is contracted {superciliary muscle^
page 320) the expression of pain is complete. We

304 Artistic Anatomy.

naturally believe that the mouth also takes part in
it, but if we cover the upper part of the countenance,
we perceive that the lower part of the face is in a
state of complete repose.

To bring to a close this history, which is not the
least interesting part of the subject, we must say
that the labours of Duchenne were not at first re-
ceived with great favour in France. Physiologists
as well as artists showed a certain distrust of a
work which pretended to give precise rules and
scientific laws to a subject about which it had been
the custom to make fanciful and sentimental com-
parisons. Few persons understood the nature of
the reason which forced Duchenne to choose as a
subject for these experiments a poor man with a
physiognomy almost imbecile in repose, and they
did not consider that if this face was old, wrinkled,
thin, and vulgar, there was the greater reason to be
struck with the precision with which the electric
excitation enabled the most opposite and character-
istic expressions to be taken.

As has been too often the fate of scientific dis-
coveries, the work of Duchenne was neglected in
France, and was not appreciated until it had been
adopted by a foreign country. It was Darwin who
made the results of the French physiologist the basis
of his own interesting studies.

It is not necessary to recall the extent and repute
of the works of Darwin on The Origi7i of Species, on
the Evolution of Atmnah and Plants, and on The
Descent of Man. What this great naturalist has done
for the general morphology of plants and animals he
sought to do for the subject of physiognomy. Seek-

Muscles of the Head. 305

ing in the logical chain of natural facts the cause of
all biological phenomena, he endeavoured to discover
by the attentive study of the movements of express-
ion, and through their origin and development, a
series of new arguments in favour of the theory of
evolution. In a word, Darwin, by invoking the
association of certain useful movements, and com-
paring the functions with the expressions with which
they are associated, sought to explain why one
muscle in particular rather than another is affected
by the expression of this or that emotion. We can-
not here enter further into the analysis of this
philosophical work. It is sufficient to remark (hav-
ing commended the perusal of it as most interesting
to the artist^) that before we explain anything it
is necessary that it should be firmly established.
Therefore the explanation of the part that each
muscle takes in the expression must be impossible
until the fact of the action and the expression associ-
ated with the movement of the muscle has been
scientifically demonstrated. The philosophical work
of Darwin could not have been undertaken if it had
not been preceded by the experimental work of
Duchenne.

Summarising Darwin's argument, his thesis may be
stated somewhat as follows : that every expression or
bodily manifestation of emotion has a physical basis,
and an origin in some useful exercise of the particular
muscles concerned ; that such an action becomes
habitual in the individual, and is transmitted from
father to son, and fi:om generation to generation ;

♦ Charles Darwin. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and tn
Animals.

U

3o6 Artistic Anatomy,

and that the actual physical cause is transferred to
a mental condition, so that an action hke knitting
the brows — primitively for the purpose of actually
clearer vision — becomes indicative of a mental state
in which the emotion is expressed of a desire for a
clearer mental vision, as when a man is engaged in
any intellectual problem.

Darwin further enunciated the important princi-
ple of ^«///^^5Z5/ which means the employment of
exactly the opposite expression (it may be by the
relaxation of muscles, or by the contraction of
antagonistic muscles), to indicate an opposite or
antagonistic attitude of mind. Thus joy is expressed
by the contraction of a definite series of facial
muscles ; grief or dejection is expressed by the relax-
ation of these and the contraction of opposing
muscles. The healthy, alert man holds his head
erect ; the depressed or miserable has a drooping
gait.

A third principle enunciated by Darwin as
employed in producing the expression of emotion is
the direct action of the nervous system, to a large
extent independent of the will, and served mainly
through the sympathetic nervous system, such as
blushing, trembling, perspiration, &c.

It is important, as Darwin points out, to bear in
mind that emotion is expressed not only by facial
expression, but by many other agencies as well ; by
the emission of sounds, by the voice in some cases,
by the rattling of the tail quills in the case of the
porcupine, &c.; by the inflation of the body, as
ni the hen who raises up all her feathers in
maternal anger, or the dog whose hair stands on

Muscles of the Head. 307

end ; by gestures, rubbing, licking, caresses, kisses ;
or by the attitude and movements of the body,
head, or hmbs.

In his book each emotion and its corresponding
expression is carefully analysed, and the physical
cause and the particular muscles engaged are pointed
out. Thus Darwin says, ^^ Weeping is the result
of some such chain as follows : Children wanting
food or suffering in any way, cry out loudly as
a call to their parents for aid, like the young of
most animals. Prolonged screaming leads to the
gorging of the bloodvessels of the eyes ; and this
causes first consciously and then habitually the con-
traction of the muscles round the eyes in order to
protect them." The mouth at the same time is
opened widely to allow of a more vigorous scream.
The overflow of tears is a consequence of the
closure of the eyes.

Again, in regard to the facial expression in
laughter, Darwin suggests that as the primitive
cause of laughter may have been a practical joke —
or, as De Rochefoucauld put it, there is some-
thing pleasing in the misfortunes of one's friends —
the expression may be associated with the retrac-
tion of the angles of the mouth, and the exposure
of the canine teeth, in preparation for self-defence
if the victim of the joke should retaliate.

The expression of disdain or disgust in the
same way is associated with the contraction of
muscles of the eye, nose, and mouth, primitively
from purely physical causes, which have become con-
nected with a mental attitude. The head is turned
aside, and the eye is half closed to shut out an

3o8 Artistic Anatomy.

unpleasant sight ; the nostril is raised at the sensa-
tion of a disagreeable smell, and the lips are curled
in disgust at a nasty taste.

There is not space in which to dwell further
on these deeply interesting questions, for a study
of which the reader is referred to Darwin's masterly
treatise on the subject.

The figures which illustrate the work of Darwin
are in a great measure only reproductions of the
photographs published by Duchenne about ten years
previously. However, as we have already mentioned,
attention has been recalled in France to the works
of Duchenne, a more favourable judgment has been
passed, and justice has been rendered to him who
had opened the way to the experimental study of
physiognomy. In 1874 the French began to devote,
in the course of anatomy in the School of Fine Arts,
several lectures to the account of what we must call
the primer or grammar of the expression of physiog-
nomy. Happy in seeing his works included in this
classical course of instruction, Duchenne, whom death
carried off a few years later, gave to the School of
Fine Arts the complete series of large origmal photo
graphs from which these publications are reduced,
and this beautiful collection is to-day one of the most
valuable in the French museum of anatomy (Museum
Hugnier).

Although this account may appear long, it is
nevertheless very incomplete, being given only with
a particular object — that of comparing the works
of Duchenne with those preceding him. Those of
Duchenne will be made the basis of the studies
which follow. We will finish by noting, as interest-

Muscles of the Head. 309

ing and instructive, the works that treat in a more
general manner of expression and physiognomy, such
as those of Lemoine, Gratiolet, and Piderit."^

» Albert Lemoine ; De la Physionomie et de la Parole. Paris, 1865.
Pierre Gratiolet ; De la Physionomie et des Mouvements d' Expression.
Paris, 1865. Piderit : Wissenschaftliches Systetn der Mintik und
Physiognomik. 1867,

310

CHAPTER XXVI.

MUSCLES OF THE FACE.

Muscles of the upper part of the face : Occipito-frontalis (attention) ;
orbicularis palpebrarum of the eyelids, superior orbital portion (re-
flection) ; pyramidalis nasi (menace) ; superciliary [corrugator super-
cilii) (pain). — Muscles of the middle region of the face : Great
zygomatic (laughter) ; lesser zygomatic and levator labii super ioris
(tenderness, sorrow) ; levator labii superioris alceque nasi (weeping
bitterly), compressor naris (lewdness). — Muscles ot the lower region
of the face : Orbicularis oris ; buccinator ; depressor anguli oris (con-
tempt) ; depressor labii inferioris (disgust) ; platysma muscle of the
neck. — Classification into muscles completely expressive and expressive
by complement. — Of associations possible and impossible with regard to
mechanism and with regard to the nature of the emotions. — Conclusion.

The muscles of the face, which are attached to the
skin, move and alter the shape of its folds and
apertures. These different cutaneous parts are very-
complex, but at the same time known to persons
who are the greatest strangers to anatomy. For
them even it is unnecessary to describe here the
eyebrows, the eyelids, the palpebral fissure, the ala
or wing of the nose, and the hps. We will only point
out, with regard to these parts, the significance of
their various anatomical names, the employment of
which will be useful in abridging the descriptions
that follow.

On the eyebrow we distinguish a broad internal
part (towards the median axis of the face) called the
head of the eyebrow, and an external part called the
tail of the eyebrow, which becomes thinner as it is
removed from the middle hne.

Muscles of the Face, 311

On each palpebral fissure, at its inner end, is a
small perforated papilla — the lachrymal papilla — the
perforation in which is named the punctum lachryynaUj
carrying the tears from the surface of the eye into
the nose by special ducts. Each of the two extremi-
ties of the palpebral fissure bears the name of the
canthits, or angle. We distinguish, therefore, on the
eyelids an external canlJius or angle characterised by
its pointed form, and an internal characterised by its
rounded form, bounding a small oval space called
the lachrymal lake^ at the bottom of which a
rose-coloured fleshy tubercle projects (the caruncula
lachrymalis). External to this is a pale fold, the
plica semilunaris J a rudiment of the third eyelid
(found in birds). We also give the name of commis-
sure (or angle) to each extremity of the buccal
aperture {co?nmissure of the lips). The groove ex-
tending from the septum of the nose to the centre of
the upper lip is known as the philtriim.

Lastly, we must note a fold which normally
exists in a more or less marked degree in every
subject, and the changes of which take a great part
in the expression produced by the various muscles of
the cheeks. This is the naso-lahial foldy so named
because, arising from the region bounded by the
cheek and the side of the nose, it is directed obfiquely
downwards and outwards, passes at a short distance
from the posterior border of the wing of the nose,
and terminates near the commissure of the lips. In
the subject who served for the experiments of Du-
chenne (Fig. 99, page 320) this fold was strongly
marked, as it generally is in all old people.

The human head and face, the features, and

312 Artistic Anatomy.

the muscles which underiie the skin have, it is
supposed, undergone progressive and retrogressive
changes in the process of evolution. The cranium
has expanded with the evolution of the brain,
while the face has become smaller and feebler,
and the teeth have shown distinct signs of
degeneration and diminution, both in size and
number.

Of the soft parts of the face, the apertures of
the eyes and mouth have increased in mobilit))
and functional power and refinement of expression ;
while the nasal apertures and the ears illustrate
a retrogression in evolution. The interior of
the nasal cavity as well as the nostrils presents a
simpler or more degenerate type in man than in
the lower animals, in whom the sense of smell is
so much more highly developed. The external ear
is a good example of a rudimentary organ. Its
parts have a definite form, and each wrinkle or
corrugation has a separate name (see Fig. 93).
It is composed of a mass of elastic cartilage (except
in the tip or lobule) which penetrates into the
passage of the ear in a tubular form. This carti-
laginous pinna is the shrivelled-up remains of the
mobile funnel-shaped ear of the lower animals ;
and the tip of the ear is represented by an angular
projection (Darwin's tubercle) placed on the edge
of the rim of the ear {helix).

The lobule is soft, and consists of a mass of
fat enclosed in the skin. It is usually free from
the neck, but in some cases (as, for example, in the
right ear of the poet Byron) the lobule is attached
to the skin of the neck, and is not in full relief.

Muscles of the Face.

313

The muscles of the nose and ear are also degenerate,
and the movements of the nostrils and of the ears
are only rudimentary.

In the same way the arrangement of the muscles
underlying the skin of the neck and head presents
examples of advance or
retrogression when com-
pared with the similar
muscles of lower animals

In hairy animals the
body is covered all over
by a thin layer of muscle
which underlies the skin,
and is called the pan-
niculus carnosiis.

In man the body has
become almost denuded
of hair, except on the
head and face, and at the
same time his capacity
of facial expression is
vastly greater than in one
of the lower animals.

The effect of these
changes is seen in the con-
dition of the panniculus carnosus. It has degenerated
over the hairless trunk, and only remains normally
as the platysma myoides of the neck. But, on
the other hand, the parts of the panniculus carnosus
which have swept over the face and have surrounded
the apertures of the eye and mouth in particular,
have become differentiated into the complicated
series of muscles of expression, rudimentary and

Fig. 93.

The External Ear. — h. helix ;—
F.H. fossa of the helix ; — a.h. anti-
helix ; — F.A.H. fossa of the anti-helix ;
c. concha ;— t. tragus ; — a.t. anti-
tragus ; — l. lobule ; — d. Darwin's
tubercle.

314 Artistic Anatomy,

feeble on the scalp and in relation to the pinna
and the nasal opening, but highly organised in
relation to the apertures of the eye and mouth.

It is for the most part these highly differenti-
ated muscles which have to be dealt with in this
chapter in connection with the expression of the
emotions.

The muscles of expression (Fig. 94) are arranged
in three series : one around the eyes and eyebrows,
occupying the upper region of the face ; the second
about the nose ; and the third around the aperture
of the mouth, occupying the middle and especially
the lower region of the face. The first series includes
the occipito-fro7italiSy the corricgator siiperciliij and
the orbicularis palpebrarum ; the second includes the
pyra?nidalis 7iasi, co7npressor iiariSj and dilator alee
nasi ; the third set is most numerous, comprising the
levator labii superioris alceque nasi, levator labii
superioris, zygomaticus major and minor, the levator
anguli oris, the orbicularis oris (to which we may
add the buccinator), the risorius, depressor anguli
oris, and depressor labii inferioris. Finally, in the
neck and extending up to the lower jaw is the
platysma myoides, which takes a considerable part in
certain powerful expressions of the face.

In the study of these muscles we will enter but
little into anatomical details, but will content our-
selves with pointing out the situation of the muscle,
its fixed attachments to the bones of the face, its
direction, and, lastly, the point on the skin where it
takes its insertion. On the other hand, we must
carefully inquire into its mechanism and the manner
in which its contraction produces alterations in the

Muscles of the Face.

315

Fig. 94.

{From Cunningham's "Text Book of Anatomy.'")

The Muscles of the Face. — i, frontalis ;— 2, attrahens aurem ; — 3, epi-
cranial aponeurosis ; — 4, attoUeus aurem ;— 5, occipitalis ;— 6, retrahens aurem ; —
7, trapezius ; — 8, parotid gland ;— 9, sterno-cleido-mastoid ; — 10, orbicularis palpe-
brarum ;— 11, pyramidalis nasi; — 12, compressor naris ; — 13, levator labii super-
toris alaeque nasi; — 14, levator labii superioris ; — 15, levator anguli oris ; — 16, de-
pressor alae nasi ;— 17, zygomaticus major ; — 18, Stenson's duct ;— 19, orbicularis
oris; — 20, risorius ;— 21, buccinator; — 22, depressor anguli oris; — 23, depressor
labii inferioris ; — 24, masseier ; — 25, platysma myoides.

skin of the face, and the nature and direction of the
folds which it marks thereon. We must ask ourselves

3i6

Artistic Anatomy.

what expression results by the occurrence of these
alterations in the face. And, lastly, we will endeav-
our to give a diagram of this expression after the

mode of representa-
tion employed by
Humbert de Super-
ville (page 298).

A. — Muscles of

THE UPPER PART
OF THE FACE
(FOREHEAD, EYE-
BROWS, EYELIDS,
AND ROOT OF
NOSE.)

i'lG. 95.

Contraction of the Frontal Muscles
(expressions of attention and astonishment).

ist. Occipito-
frontalis muscle

(muscle of attentioii).
—This muscle (i^
Fig. Z"^, page 285)
(Fig. 94) consists of an anterior and a posterior
belly, connected by an intermediate membranous
tendon covering the scalp. Its anterior belly
extends as a fleshy sheet, quadrilateral in form,
over each lateral half of the forehead. The muscles
of each side are continuous with one another
across the middle line. The anterior muscu-
lar portion is the frontalis. Its lower border is
attached to the skin of the eyebrow, and blends with
the orbicularis palpebrarum. From this origin its
fibres ascend vertically and parallel to each other
towards the region of the roots of the hair, and

Muscles of the Face,

317

become continuous, at this level, with the mem-
branous expansion of the epicranial aponeurosis.
This aponeurosis, which covers the vault of the skull
and is adherent to the skin of the scalp, is prolonged
backwards to the occipital region, where it terminates
in a bilateral fleshy layer, the
occipitalis muscle, attached to the
superior curved line of the oc-
cipital bone.

In order to understand the
mechanism of the occipito-frontalis
muscle it is necessary to consider
it as taking its fixed origin at the
posterior part of the skull, through
the medium of the epicranial
aponeurosis and the occipitalis
portion of the muscle ; its inser-
tion is its attachment to the deep
surface of the skin of the eyebrow and the orbicularis
palpebrarum. It has no bony attachment in the
region of the forehead. The frontalis, therefore,
in contracting, draws the skin of the eyebrow and
the upper eyelid from below upwards, and con-
sequently raises the eyebrow, and causes transverse
folds to appear in the skin of the forehead.

In examining (Fig. 95) a face in which this muscle
is contracted we perceive that it expresses attention ;
if the contraction of the muscle is very great this
expression of attention changes to that of astonish-
ment. In entering into the detail of the changes
that the face then presents we see that the eyebrow
is raised and its superior convexity is very marked,
that the eye is widely opened, clear, and brilhant, and

Fig. y6.

Diagram of the frontal

muscles {attention).

3i8

Artistic Anatomy.

that the forehead is furrowed on each lateral half by
curved folds concentric with the curve of the eye-
brows, continued more or less from one side to the
other, and describing curves in the middle line with
the concavity upwards. In a child or young woman,

in whom the skin
is supple and elastic,
it does not give rise
to the formation of
folds, and the skin of
the forehead remains
quite smooth during
the contraction of the
frontal muscle, and
then the elevation of
the eyebrow, the ex-
aggeration of its curve
and the state of the
eyes, open and bright,
are sufficient to give
the expression of at-
tention.

Figure 96 is the
representation of attention, characterised here solel}^
by the form of the eyebrows and the frontal folds.
2nd. The orbicularis palpebrarum (6, Fig. '^'^^ and
10, Fig. 94). — The orbicular muscle of the eyes is a
very extensive muscle which encircles the palpebral
orifice. It is composed of numerous portions which can
act more or less independently, and which have not
all an equal importance in the expression of the face.
a. One part of this orbicular muscle, called the
palpebral party is contained in the thickness of the

llliili lil^ii«fflll.;ll:lil:iilllillJlllll^ltt^yi!™iil.llilli*llil

Fig. 97.

The Upper Part of the Orbicularis
Palpebrarum (reflection).

Muscles of the Face.

319

eyelids, and produces by its contraction the
closing of the eyes. If this contraction is
moderate it produces only a certain drawing
together of the eyelids and reduces the opening of
the eyes to the form of a linear slit. This state of
the palpebral opening does not
constitute by itself an expression,
properly speaking, but it may be
complementary to various expres-
sions ; thus, associated with a slight
contraction of the triangular muscle
of the lips, which is the muscle of
disgust and discontent (page 333),
it gives to the countenance the
expression of disdain and con-
tempt.

h, A second part of the
orbicular muscle is arranged in
a circular manner on the outer side of the
eyelids, and corresponds exactly to the contour of
the orbital orifice of the skeleton (Fig. 58, page 174,
and Fig. '^'^j page 285). This portion, which we
may call the orbital portion^ is divided into two
parts : one, the inferior fibres, the contraction of
which moves the lower eyelid slightly upwards
and causes a furrow at its junction with the
cheek, and without being expressive by itself,
completes the expression of laughter by giving
to it a character of frankness and truth ; and
the superior fibreSy which merit more detailed
study, for they produce by their action a char-
acteristic expression of reflection, meditation, and
contemplation.

Fig. 98.

Diagram representation
of reflection, meditation.

320

Artistic Anatomy.

This superior orbital portion of the muscle (muscle
of reflection) is placed beneath the skin of the eye-
brow, and its fibres, like it, describe an arc with the
concavity downwards, of which the inner extremity
is adherent to the internal border of the orbital

opening. The me-
chanism, therefore,
of this muscle is
easily foreseen ; for,
like all curved
muscles, more or less
fixed at their ex-
tremities, it must in
contraction straighten
its curve. It accord-
ingly acts in this
way on the eyebrow,
to the skin of which
it is adherent, and
effaces its curve,
rendering it straight
transversely ; and it
depresses, and consequently makes tense, the skin
of the forehead, causing its wrinkles to disappear.

In examining a face in which this muscle is con-
tracted we perceive that it expresses reflection. In
Figure 97, owing to the excessive development of
the eyebrow, which is greatly lowered, the hairs
descend over the eyes, and the expression is rather
that of painful reflection or of intense apphcation of
the mind pre-occupied with sadness ; but we see in
every case that this expression is obtained essentially
by the lowering and straight direction of the eyebrow.

«;■':l;"^J?: : ::.;i::;i:;iiii,:i!../::M:i'.:iiM:i:ii;j„njL!:,n4,..jii|ii|!ii:ia^^^^^^^^
Fig. 99.
Superciliary Muscle {sorrow).

Muscles of the Face.

321

Fig. 100.

Diagram representation

of sorrow.

which veils the eye and effaces all wrinkles on the
forehead. This alteration in the features is precisely
the reverse of that produced by the frontalis muscle,
as is shown by the comparison of Figures 95 and 96,
and in fact the two states of mind
corresponding to the expression
given by each of the muscles are
precisely the reverse of each other.
We cannot be at the same time
attentive to an external object and
meditating in reflection. Usually
the succession of these states of
mind and facial expression is as
follows : — We are attentive to that
on w^iich we are looking, the eye
open, brilliant, the eyebrow raised,
and the forehead wrinkled (con-
traction of the frontal muscle) ; afterwards we
reflect on what we have seen, and are, so to speak,
abstracted from the external world — the eyebrow
is lowered, the forehead smooth, and the eye
veiled (by contraction of the superior fibres of the
orbicularis palpebrarum), or the eyes may be closed
(by contraction of the whole of the muscle).

Figure 98 is the representation of reflection^
characterised by the absence of the frontal folds,
the depression of the eyebrows and the presence of
two small vertical folds in the space between the
eyebrows, to which the depression of the eyelid gives
rise (Fig. 97). This representation of reflection
(Fig. 98) does not acquire its full demonstrative
significance until we compare it with that ot
attention (Fig. 96).

322

Artistic Anatomy.

3rd. Pyramidalis nasi muscle (or muscle of
me7iace\-'^V\'^ small muscle, situated in the space
between the eyebrows on a level with the root of
the nose (11, Fig. 94) (9, Fig- ^8, page 285), is formed
by short vertical fibres, which is attached by its lower

end to a membranous
expansion over the
nasal bones (Fig. 58,
page 174), and by its
upper end to the deep
surface of the skin
of the space between
the eyebrows.

The contraction of
this muscle therefore
produces the follow-
ing result :— -Taking its
fixed insertion at the
nasal bones, it draws
downward the skin of
the space between
the eyebrows, form-
ing short transverse
folds, and depressing slightly the inner part of the
eyebrow.

In a face in which this muscle is contracted
(see the atlas of Duchenne) the' expression is that
of harshness, menace, and aggression. Looking at
the expression of countenance which Duchenne re-
produced by this contraction, we can readily believe
that if the subject had been represented in full, its
attitude would have been one of menace ; and the
individual would be shaking his fist or brandishing

Fig. ioi.

Great Zygomatic Muscle (expression of
gaiety, of laughter).

Muscles of the Face. * 323

a weapon. Moreover, anything which throws a
shadow or a dark look between the eyebrows gives
to the physiognomy a character of harshness, as
when the contraction of the pyramidahs produces
the transverse folds in this region. Therefore, in
those persons in whom the eyebrows seem to meet,
owing to an exaggerated development of hair in the
space between, the physiognomy always presents at
first sight the stamp of severity and harshness, which
may not agree in the least with the true character of
the subject. The expression of the pyramidalis is
too delicate, and due to a change of the features too
local and slight for us to express it by a drawing,
as we have done in the case of the preceding
muscles.

4th. Superciliary muscle (corrugator stipercilii, or
muscle of pain). — This short muscle is deeply hidden
beneath the skin of the region of the head of the
eyebrow. Its fixed attachment is to the frontal bone,
above the superciliary arch ; from this origin its fibres
are directed outwards and slightly downwards to be
inserted into the deep surface of the skin at the
middle of the eyebrow.

Its mechanism consists in drawing the eyebrow
inwards and slightly upwards, and as it is attached
to the middle of the eyebrow it draws it together at
this point, namely, towards its inner part. The eye-
brow is therefore, so to speak, abruptly hooked up-
wards and inwards, like a curtain that has been
tucked up and attached to a fixed point. It there-
fore produces on the skin of the forehead folds
concentric to this gathering together of the eyebrow
and situated in the middle of the forehead, besides

324 Artistic Anatomy.

producing the vertical furrows, obvious in the figures,
between the eyebrows.

Figure 99 represents, after a photograph of Du-
chenne, the state of the physiognomy caused by the
contraction of the supercihary muscle. This physi-
ognomy has an expression characteristic of suffering,
and any greater accentuation of the action of the
muscle shows in a marked degree the expression of
physical or mental agony.

We see that the only parts changed in this
expression (compare Fig. 95, page 315) are the inner
half of the eyebrow and the region between the
eyebrows on the forehead ; pain, therefore, is expressed
by the raising of this part of the eyebrow and its
gathering together abruptly in the middle of the
forehead, and by the presence of the short folds
immediately above this and the more extended folds
occupying the middle region of the forehead.

Figure 100 is a diagrammatic representation of
pain, expressed only by changes in the neighbour-
hood of the inner part of the eyebrow (contrast with
Fig. 102 following).

B. — Muscles of the middle region of the

FACE.

5th. The great zygomatic muscle {zygomaticiis
major y muscle of laughter^, — This muscle (17, Fig.
94, and II, Fig. 88) has its fixed attachment on
the cheek-bone ; from this origin it is directed ob-
liquely downwards and forwards, to be inserted
into the deep surface of the skin near the angle
of the mouth.

Muscles of the Face.

325

6th. Elevator of the angle of the mouth, — The
levator anguli oris is a muscle which largely
aids the great zygomatic muscle in its action. It
arises from the canine fossa of the upper jaw, and is
directed downwards towards the angle of the mouth.
It is inserted into the skin,
and blends with the orbicularis
oris (15, Fig. 94).

The mechanism of these
muscles consists in drawing the
angle of the mouth upwards and
outwards, an action which results
in some complex changes in the
expression of the countenance.
At first the orifice of the mouth
is enlarged transversely, and its
direction ceases to be straiglit,
so that each lateral half is
directed obliquely upwards and outwards. As
the naso-labial line (Fig. 95) passes, at its lower
end, near the commissure of the lips, this also
is carried upwards, describing a slight curve con-
centric to the commissure of the lips, while the
upper part of the line describes a curve with its
convexity downwards. The skin of the cheek
gathered up towards the cheek-bone becomes more
prominent, and forms, below the outer angle of
the eye, several radiating folds (commonly called
crows' -feet), which throw a slight shadow beneath
the external angle of the eye ; this makes it
appear as if the line of the eyehds is a little raised on
the outer side (or oblique upwards).

Figure loi, representing the contraction of the great

Fig. 102.

Diagram representation

of laughter.

326

Artistic Anatomy.

zygomatic muscle, illustrates in a diagram the frank
expression of gaiety and laughter, and we see that
the alterations of expression take place only, as we
have already said, in the line of the lips, the naso-
labial line, and the external angle of the eyes.

Figure 102, giving the representation of laughter
according to the preceding description of the great
zygomatic muscle, is very similar
to the corresponding figure of
Humbert de Superville (Fig. 92,
page 299), only, in order to ex-
press the reality without having
regard here to appearances, we
have drawn the lines of the eyes
horizontal ; and, again, the naso-
labial furrow has been repre-
sented with its form convex down-
wards and inwards for the upper
two-thirds, and with the slight
hook which its inferior extremity
describes. This naso-labial furrow
is of the utmost importance in the expressions
produced by all the muscles belonging to the lips,
as we shall see in the following description.

7th. The lesser zygomatic {zygomaticiis minor)
and elevator of the upper lip {levator labii superioris,
muscle of grief).— On the inner side of the great
zygomatic muscle there exists frequently (10, Fig. d>d>y
page 285), but not constantly, a small muscular
fasciculus which arises from the anterior part of the
cheek-bone and descends to be inserted into the
thickness of the upper lip. This muscle, called the
lesser zygomatic, does not take part in the expression

Fig. 103.
Diagram representation
cf the external common
elevator (muscle oi grief).

Muscles of the Face. 327

of laughter ; in fact, it changes the naso-labial furrow
in the same manner as the following muscle (the
external common elevator), and so expresses, as we
shall see, emotion, sadness, and grief.

8th. The elevator of the upper lip {levator labii
superioris) arises (14, Fig. 94, and 14, Fig. %%, page 285)
from the inferior border of the bony margin of the
orbit and descends to the upper
lip.

Its contraction raises the upper
lip itself, but not the labial com-
missure, so that each half of
the line of the lips, raised
within and remaining depressed
at its outer extremity, becomes
slightly oblique from above down-
wards and from within outwards
(the reverse of the obliquity ^'°' ''°^'

Diagram representation

produced by the great zygomatic of the intemai common

muscle) ; at the same time the ''ZTiJZ^''^^ °^ ^'''^
centre of the naso-labial furrow
is raised and the furrow becomes curved with its
concavity downwards and inwards (the reverse of
the curve produced by the great zygomatic).

By means of these changes the countenance
takes on the expression ot discontent, emotion,
and grief (see the atlas of Duchenne).

We give here only one drawing (Fig. 103) in
which are shown the two essential changes pro-
duced by this . muscle (obliquit}'- of the line of the
lips and curve of the naso-labial furrow), which
seems to us to show in a satisfactory manner the
expression of grief in tears. We comprehend the

328 Artistic Anatomy.

value of this drawing better by comparing it
with Figure 102. We see that the changes produced
by the muscle of grief (lip and naso-labial furrow)
are precisel)^ the reverse of those produced by the
muscle of laughter {zygomaticus major), just as the
two corresponding emotions are the reverse of each
other. We remark also how slight is the distance
which separates these two muscles, and how delicate
are the shades of anatomical arrangement which
separate them, so delicate that authors do not
agree as to whether the muscle found between
them, the lesser zygomatic muscle, when it exists,
should be considered as associated with the great
zygomatic or, as we think, with the common
elevator of the nose and upper lip. Beyond doubt
their anatomical relations should remind us, in the
nature of the emotions and their expression, how
small a distance there is between laughter and
tears.

9th. The elevator of the nose and upper lip
{levator lahii superioris alcsqiie nasi, muscle of sob-
bing, of weeping bitterly). — This muscle (13, Fig. 94,
and 7, Fig. 88) arises above from the inner border of
the orbit ; it descends almost vertically to be inserted
by some of its fibres into the wing of the nose, and
by the majority into the upper lip, not far from
its central portion.

It therefore raises the middle part of the lip,
the labial commissure remaining fixed, and gives
accordingly to each half of the line of the lips a
direction oblique downwards and outwards (like
the preceding muscle, but in a more characteristic
manner) ; at the same time it dilates the nostril

Muscles of the Face. 329

by raising the wing of the nose ; lastly, by the
traction that it exercises vertically on the skin of
the naso-labial furrow, it raises e7i masse the inner
and upper part of this furrow and renders it
straight, causing it to form a species of groove
wherein the tears flow when they pour abundantly
from the inner angle of the eyelids. These changes
(see the atlas of Duchenne) give to the countenance
the expression of grief with abundant tears, or of
weeping bitterly.

The drawing of Figure 104 renders this expression
to a certain degree, but it is difficult to realise it with
the simple elements we use in these formulae. We
see that all the folds of the face converge towards
the inner angle of the eye, or towards the point of
attachment of this muscle.

loth. Transverse ?niLScle of the nose [compressor
narisy muscle oi lasciviousness), — This muscle (12, Fig.
94, and 9, Fig. 88) is attached at its origin to the skin
of the cheek on a level with the side of the nose, and
is directed transversely forwards over the nose to join
a thin aponeurosis which stretches over the bridge of
the nose, and receives the insertions of these two
muscles, and that of the pyramidalis nasi.

This aponeurosis, which covers the bridge of
the nose, forms a fixed point towards which these
muscles draw the skin of the cheek and nose, so as to
mark on the lateral surface of the nose a series of
vertical folds (perpendicular to the direction of the
muscle).

Duchenne considered the change produced by
these muscles to be characteristic of the expression of
lasciviousness. Perhaps this muscle by itself is not

330 Artistic Anatomy,

sufficiently expressive, but when its contraction ac-
companies that of certain other muscles, we find very
clearly in the physiognomy the element of lewdness
pointed out by Duchenne. In his atlas this author
gives the photograph of a countenance in which he
had produced contraction of the frontalis, the great
zygomatic, and the compressor naris ; a countenance
of which the expression may be directly interpreted
as that of an old man in whom the attention (fron-
talis muscle) is agreeably excited (great zygomatic)
by a spectacle arousing lewd ideas (compressor
naris) ; the face produced by Duchenne would be,
for example, a study in physiognomy for the head of
the old man in the classic subject of Susanna in
the bath.

We have not attempted to represent by a drawing
an unsatisfactory and perhaps doubtful idea of the
expression of this muscle.

C. — Muscles of the lower part of the face.

I ith. Orbicularis muscle of the lips {orbicularis
oris). — In the substance of the lips, as in the eyelids, a
muscle is found, the fibres of which surround the orifice
of the mouth — the orbicularis oris (19, Fig. 94, and
15, Fig. 8S). This muscle principally possesses func-
tions not primarily pertaining to expression, but to the
various uses of the lips — prehension of food, mastica-
tion, speech, suction, etc. ; the part it takes in physi-
ognomy, although of importance, is secondary to these
elemental functions. As in the orbicular muscle ot
the eyelids, we distinguish in it internal fibres corre-
sponding to the free border of the lips and external

Muscles of the Face. 331

fibres more peripherally placed. If the inner fibres
only contract (internal orbicular) they close the
mouth, and, diminishing the size of the orifice,
cause the red surfaces of the lips to be brought
closely together in their whole extent. If the outer
fibres (external orbicular) contract only, they project
the hps forwards and render their surfaces prominent
and rounded, as in the expression of pouting or in
kissing.

We need not dwell at length on the muscle which
constitutes the fleshy layer of the cheeks and forms
the lateral walls of the cavity of the mouth. This
muscle, called the buccinator {bucciriarey to play the
trumpet), is a thin sheet of muscle (21, Fig. 9 4) lining the
hollow of the cheek in front of the line of the masseter.
It is separated from that muscle posteriorly by a pad
of fat (the remains of a suctorial pad), which in the
infant is an important aid in suckhng, and may be
seen projecting into the side of the mouth. It takes
a part in movements associated with the actions of
the tongue and lips ; it plays an important part in
mastication by bringing beneath the crown of the
teeth the food which passes outside the alveolar
arches. It also aids in the articulation of sounds
(speech) and in whistling and the playing of wind
instruments (whence its name of buccinator), for it is
the contraction of this muscle that expels from the
mouth the air which inflates the cheeks. By its
insertion into the angle of the mouth, where its fibres
decussate with those of the orbicularis muscle, the
buccinator is able to some extent to assist in the
retraction of the mouth, as in grinning or snarling.

12th. The depressor of the angle of the mouth

332

Artistic Anatomy.

{depressor angidi oris, muscle of contempt), — This
muscle belongs to the lower lip. It forms (^22,
Fig. 94, and 16, Fig. 88) a triangular layer, of which
the base is attached to the lower jaw, external to the
symphysis of the chin, and from this origin its fibres

converge towards
the angle of the
mouth, where, by
its apex, it is in-
serted into the deep
surface of the skin.
This muscle de-
presses the labial
commissure, and
therefore renders
the line of the lips
oblique in a direc-
tion downwards and
outwards ; again, it
draws downwards
the lower extremity
of the naso-labial
furrow so as to render this furrow almost straight,
except at its lower end, which describes a slight
curve embracing the labial commissure.

The expression produced by a slight contraction
of this muscle is that of sadness ; marked contrac-
tion produces the expression of contempt. We have
already seen (page 319) that a partial closing of the
eyelids usually helps to complete the expression of
contempt. Two other movements assist in this
expression — a contraction of the common elevator of
the nose and upper lip, raising the ala of the nose

:_.;:,^i:iHiiii:ialiiiiai!ii!iiililiiilii!i;,ii;i

I'lG. 105.

Triangular Muscle of the Lips (expression
of discontent, of conUntpt).

Muscles of the Face.

333

and curling the lip upwards ; and a movement of the
head to the opposite side. All these movements may
have, as Darwin pointed out, a rational physical
basis — the expression of the mouth implying a dis-
agreeable taste, the uplifting of the nose an unpleasant
smell, and the aversion of the
head a disgusting sight.

Figure 105, copied from Duch-
enne, renders well, by the con-
traction only of the two triangular
muscles of the lips, the expression
of discontent and scorn. The de-
pression of the angles of the
mouth is characteristic, and the
naso-labial furrow, very marked
in the subject under experiment,
is greatly changed in its direction
and in the form of its inferior
extremity, according to the mechanism that we have
explained.

Lastly, the drawing of Figure 106 gives, so to
speak, a diagrammatic formula of contempt by means
of the form of the inferior part of the naso-labial
furrow, and the concentric folds which it produces
below the angle of the mouth.

13th. The depressor of the lower lip {quadratiis
menti : depressor labii inferioris, muscle of disgust).
— This muscle [22,, Fig. 94, and 17, Fig. ^'^\ partly
hidden by the depressor anguli oris, arises from the
anterior part of the body of the lower jaw ; from
this origin the fibres ascend obliquely upwards and
inwards to be inserted into the whole length of the
lower lip.

Fig. 106.
Diagram representation
of the expression of dis-
content, oi contempt.

334 Artistic Anatomy.

This muscle's action is to depress the lower lip,
turning it outwards more or less strongly, so as to
produce the grimace characteristic of a person who,
having introduced into the cavity of the mouth a
morsel of food which he does not find to his taste,
rejects it forcibly, forming a species of groove with
the lower lip turned outwards ; if the contraction is
less energetic the physiognomy expresses disgust.

We must refer to the atlas of Duchenne for the
reproduction of this expression, always more or less
rude, and have not attempted a drawing with a
simple line as an indication of the labial fissure.

14th. Platysma muscle of the neck {platysma
myoides). — In each lateral half of the anterior surface
of the neck is a thin muscular sheet situated beneath
the skin (25, Fig. 94, and 25, Fig. 74, page 217). This
platysma muscle is attached below to the upper part
of the chest, from which origin its fibres are directed
obliquely upwards and forwards towards the lower
jaw, to be inserted into the edge of the jaw, and the
skin of the chin, of the lower lip, and the commissure
of the lips ; the more superior fibres sweep forwards
in a horizontal direction across the cheek towards the
labial commissure, and constitute the risorius muscle
of Santorini (20, Fig. 94).

The platysma, which is not of itself essentially a
muscle of expression, adds its contraction to that of
various muscles of the face, so as to give to the corre-
sponding expression a character of terrible energy ; the
risorius muscle does not therefore produce the
expression of laughter (of gaiety), but only that of
grinning, of forced laughter, threatening or sneering.
The platysma in all these cases acts by depressing the

Muscles of the Face. ;^35

lower jaw, slightly opening the mouth, and drawing
the labial commissure downwards ; it marks at the
same time a series of transverse folds on the skin of
the neck. These elements are capable of giving to
the physiognomy a terrible character, which Leonardo
da Vinci has well observed, in his chapter on the
mode of representing a person in a state of violent
anger, where he says, " it makes the sides of the
mouth into a bow, the neck thick and swollen, and
marked with wrinkles in front."

If the characteristic changes produced by the
contraction of the platysma of the neck occur along
with the contraction of the frontalis muscle, the
countenance, as shown in Duchenne's series of
photographs, takes on an expression of attention
and astonishment such as might be produced by a
terrible spectacle. Associated with the contraction
of the superciliary muscle, the expression becomes
that of acute pain, as, for example, in a wretch
under torture, or a victim torn by a beast of prey.
If the contraction of the pyramidalis nasi is accom-
panied by that of the platysma we have the expres-
sion of a savage and barbarous threat.

General considerations, — Associations arid com-
binations.— From the enumeration we have made
of the facial muscles from the forehead to the
neck, we must perceive that among these muscles
there are some which are by themselves com-
pletely expressive {e.g., the frontal, superciliary,
and great zygomatic), and others which are expres-
sive only in a complementary sense, or intended
only to complete or change an expression produced
by another muscle (such are the palpebral portion

336 Artistic Anatomy.

of the orbicularis of the eyelids, and the platysma
of the neck), and lastly, others which are almost
non-expressive, but yet associated with the true
muscles of the expression {e.g. the buccinator).
But we have not space here to dwell on these
classifications.

A more important question is that of the associa-
tion of the action of various muscles, and especially
of the muscles which are completely expressive
by themselves. The expression peculiar to each
of these muscles is, so to speak, one of the
syllables or words of the language of physiognomy,
but, like every other language, physiognomy asso-
ciates these syllables and words to arrive at its
expressions. Now experience shows that usually
the associations and combinations are composed
of few elements. Usually two suffice ; three muscles
are sometimes in play simultaneously, hardly ever
four.

Again, if we endeavour to realise these com-
binations theoretically by supposing the contractions
of two muscles associated at random, we soon
perceive that among the combinations some are
easy and ordinary, and this is on account of the
nature of emotions which we suppose associated,
and the mechanism of the corresponding muscles,
while others are impossible for the same reason.

The following is an example of easy com-
bination related at the same time to the emotions
and also to the muscular mechanism — viz., the
combination of the contraction of the frontalis and
of the great zygomatic muscles, as expressive of
attention and laughter. On the one hand, attention

Muscles of the Face. 337

(frontalis) might be excited by a spectacle which
provokes laughter (zygomatic) ; on the other hand,
the frontal muscle and the great zygomatic being
situated the one in the forehead and the other
in the cheek, acting, one on the eyebrow, the
other on the lips, the mechanism of one is inde-
pendent of that of the other ; this, however, from
an anatomical point of view, does not prevent the
two contracting simultaneously, exactly as the
biceps might contract in order to flex the forearm,
at the same time that the common extensor of
the fingers extends the digital phalanges.

On the other hand, as impossible combinations
discordant both to sentiment and muscular
mechanism, we may, for example, consider the
simultaneous contraction of the frontalis and the
superior orbital portion of the orbicularis muscles
of the eyelids. The first muscle expresses atten-
tion, the second reflection, or two opposite states
of the mind, which cannot at the same time be
open to external phenomena, and meditating on
internal analyses. Again, the first muscle raises,
the second depresses the eyebrow, which cannot
be at the same time drawn in two opposite di-
rections; just as, to take an example from the
muscles of the limbs, the forearm cannot be at the
same time flexed by the action of the biceps and
extended by that of the triceps.

By submitting them to the same analysis we see
that nothing is easier or more concordant to their
mechanism and to the emotions than the simultane-
ous contraction of the frontalis and the depressor

anguli oris (attention and contempt), of the super-
w

338 Artistic Anatomy.

ciliary and the depressor labii inferioris (pain and
disgust), the pyramidalis and the common elevator
of the nose and upper lip (menace and sorrow), etc.
On the contrary, for the same double series of reasons
we find impossible and discordant associations, such
as those of the great zygomatic and the depressor
labii inferioris (gaiety and disgust), the pyramidalis
and the superciliary (menace and pain), and of the
common elevator of the nose and upper lip and the
great zygomatic (sorrow and laughter).

There are, however, combinations which at first
sight appear discordant to the nature of the passions,
but which are found, notwithstanding, not to have
any obstacle to their realisation in the mechanism of
the countenance. ' We take, for example, the super-
ciliary and the great zygomatic : one expresses pain,
the other laughter — two expressions of an opposite
nature ; however, as these muscles correspond, one
belonging to the head of the eyebrow, the other to
the labial commissure, they can act without one
counteracting the other, and we may well understand
their simultaneous contraction. Now on reflection
we find that this association, anatomically possible
js often realised, notwithstanding the apparent incom-
patibility of the corresponding passions. In the midst
of violent physical pain, which causes the involuntary
and irresistible contraction of the superciliary, a serene
and powerful will finds still the energy to smile. In
order to find the realisation in a work of art it is
sufficient to study the expression of the countenance
of Seneca in the painting by Giordano. A similar
example is offered by that of a young woman who
has become a mother, and who, though still quivering

Muscles of the Face. 339

with the pain of childbirth {superciliary muscle), is
divided betwixt the physical pain and the mental joy
of seeing the infant to whom she has given birth and
at whom she smiles {great zygomatic muscle).

These latter examples show that the anatomical
conditions take the lead up to a certain point of those
conditions which result from the nature of the emo-
tions, and that a combination of expressions is possible
only when it can be realised by the action of the
facial muscles.

We will finish here these short studies of the
anatomy of the face, happy if we have been success-
ful in showing the artist that in the movements of the
face there is neither fancy, caprice, nor inspiration,
but that all is subject to exact and precise rules
which are the orthography of the language of physio-
gnomy, and that the possible combinations are both
large and varied, so that the artist can preserve his
liberty of action while conforming to these rules, as
the poet observes those of grammar without being
on that account embarrassed in the scope of his
genius.

TN DEX

Abdomen, Form of
Abdomen, Muscles of

199

198

Abduction ai;d Adduction 118, 121

Abductor Pollicis 248

Acetabulum 106

Achilles, Tendon of 277

Acromio - clavicular Articula-
tion 57

Acromion Process 57

Adductor Muscles of Hand ... 248

Adductor Muscles of Thigh ... 262

Agony, Expression of 324

Alar Ligaments 144

Alveoli, Dental 178

Anatomical Neck of humerus 60

Anatomical Snuff-box 246

Anatomy, Definition and His-
tory of 7

Anconeus Muscle ... 240, 242

Anger, Expression of 335

Angular Processes 168

Ankle-joint 148

Annular Ligament, Anterior

of Wrist 88

Anterior Triangle of Neck ... 283

Antinous, Measurement of ... 187

Antithesis of Expression ... 306

Apollo, Measurement of ... 187

Arm 67, 77

Arm, Muscles of 224

Armpit, Hollow of 215

Arthrology 19

Articular Processes

Association of Expressions , . .

Astragalo - calcaneo - scaphr-id
Joint

Astragalo-scaphoid
tion

Astragalus Bone .

Athletes, Ancient

Atlas, Vertebra

Atmospheric Pressure, Influ-
ence of

Attention, Expression of

Auditory Canal

Auditory Meatus

Axilla ...

Axis, Vertebra ..

B

PAGE

157

Articula-

157

148, 152, 155

II

32

123
316
169
169
215
32

Back, Muscles of 205

Bell, Sir Charles 296

Bertini, Ligament ol 119

Biceps Brachialis 224

Biceps Femoi is 266

Biceps Muscle 222,224

Bicipital Groove 61, 67

Bicipital Tubercle 78

Bigelow, Ligament of IIQ

Blanc, Charles 99

Bone, Structure of 25

Brachial Index lOo

Brachialis Anticus Muscle ... 228

Brachio-radialis Muscle ... 238

Brachycephalic of Skull ... 172

342

Artistic Anatomy.

Breast

Buccinator Muscle
Buttock

PAGE
196

121

Calcaneum

Camper on Facial Angle

Canalis Tarsi

Canine Fossa

Canine Teeth

Canons ...

Capitellum

Carpo - metacarpal Articula-
tion

Carpus

Carpus, Muscles of

Cartilages

Caruncula Lachrymalis
Caucasian Race, Facial Angle

of 184

Cephalic Index 171

Cephalic Vein 219

Cervical Vertebrae 32

Cheek, Prominence of i;6

Chest 41, 51

Chin 177

Chondro-costal Articulation 52
Chondro-sternal Articulation 52
Clavicle 55, 65

... 152
181, 296

••• 155
176

•■• 175
99, 189
... 08

92

87

239

26

3"

Coccyx

Combination of Expressions
Commissure of Eyelids...
Commissure of Lips
Complexus Muscle

Condyle of Jaw

Condyles of Femur
Condyles of Humerus ...
Condyles, Occipital

Conoid Ligament

Contempt, Muscle of ...
Coraco-brachialis Muscle

Coracoid Process

104

... 319

... 311

... 211

... 178

••• 133

... 69

.. 165

••• 59

••■ 332

... 215

222, 227

... 58

PAGE

167,

170

69

70,

178

51

118

108

164

284

136,

141

261

...

69

152,

158

208

156,

157

Coronal Suture

Coronoid Fossa

Coronoid Process

Costal Cartilages

Cotyloid Ligaments
Coxo-femoral Articulation

Cranium

Cricoid Cartilage

Crucial Ligaments

Crureus Muscle

Cubitus

Cuboid Bone

Cucullary Muscle

Cuneiform Bones 88, 152,
Curves of Vertebral Column

D

Darwin on Expression of

Emotions 304

Deltoid Impression 68

Deltoid Muscle 216

Diaphyses 24

Digastric Muscle 288,289

Discontent, Expression of ... 333

Discs, Intervertebral 34

Discs, Vertebral 28

Disgust, Expression of 333

Dissections 9> 12

Dog, Facial Angle of 184

Dolichocephalic of Skull ... 172

Dorsum Ilii 106

Duchenne of Boulogne,... 301,308

Ear 312

Egyptian Art 2

Egyptian Canon 99

Elbow, Articulation of 71

Elbow, Hollow of] 234

Elevators of Lips, Muscles ... 326

Ensiform Cartilage 42

Index,

343

PAGE

Epicranial Aponeurosis 317

Epigastrium 53

Epiphyses 24

Erector Spinse 214

Expression, Antithesis of ... 306

Expression, Muscles of 294

Expressions, Combination of 336

Extensor Brevis Digitorum ... 279

Extensors of Fingers, Muscles 239

Extensors of Toes, Muscles . . . 269

Eye 312

Eye, Muscles of 318

Eyebrow 310

Eyelids 319

Face, Muscles of ...
Face, Skeleton of...

Facial Angle

Fascia Lata

Female Figure, Formulae

Femur

Femur, Neck of ...

Fibula

Fingers

Flexor Carpi Radialis
Flexors of Fingers, Muscles...
Flexors of Toes. Muscles ...

291,

of...
116,

135,

i5i> i55i

232,

Foot

Foot as a Canon
Foot, Muscles of ...
Foramen Magnum

Forearm

Forearm, Muscles of
Forehead, Muscles of
Formulae of Male and Female

Figures

Frederick of Germany, Edict

of

Frontal Bone

Frontal Muscle

Frontal Sinuses

310

181

256
125

131

117

147
93
235
237
278
160
185
278
165

77
244

316
125

12

166
316
168

Galen

9

Gastrpcnemins Muscle ..

• •■ 273

Gemelli Muscles

... 256

Gerdy on Canous

... 185

Gladiator, Measurement

of... 187

Glenoid Cavity

59, 180

Gluteal INIuscles

... 252

Gracilis

... 264

Grecian Art

3

Grief, Muscle of

... 326

Grinning, Expression of

••• 334

Groin, Fold of

... 112

Groove, Bicipital

61,67

Gullet

... 284

Gymnasium and Anatomy ... 11

H

Hamstring Muscles

265

Hand

87

Hand, Muscles of

232,

247

Head as a Canon

185

Head, Bones of

164

Head, Movements of ..

3,3,

Head, Muscles of

291

Hip-bones

105

Hip-joint

118

Hips, Measurements and

Pro-

portions of

124

Humerus

60, 67

Hypothenar Eminence ..

248,

249

Iliac Fossa

Ilio-costalis Muscle
Ilio-femoral Articulation
Ilio-femoral Ligament ...
Ilio-lumbar Ligament ...
Ilio-pectineal Line ' ...

Ilio-tibial Band

Ilio-trochanteric Band ...

108
214
118
119
III
107
144, 257
... 121

344

Artistic Anatomy.

Ilium

Incisive Fossa
Incisor Teeth
Index, Brachial
Index, Cephalic
Jndex Finger ...
Infra-hyoid Muscles
Infra-orbital Foramen ..
Infra-spinatus Muscle ..

Inter-carpal Joint

Inter-condyloid Notch ..
Interosseous Ligament ..
Interosseous Membrane
Interosseous Muscles ..
Interosseous Space
Inter-phalangeal Articul
Ischium

J

Jaw, Articulation of the
Jaw, Muscles of

Kissing, Expression of..
Knee, Articulation of .,

Knee, Form of

Knee, Ligaments of

PAGE

... 105
... 176
179, 180

... ICX)

... 171

91, 246
... 285
... 174
212, 219
... 89

• • 133
... 156

... 147

... 250

80, 147

ation 94

. 105

180
292

331
>3i

144

139

Lachrymal Lake

Lambdoid, Suture
Laocoon, Measurement of

Larynx

Lasciviousness, Muscle of
Latissimus Dorsi Muscle
Laughter, Expression of
Lavater on Physiognomy
Le Brun on Studies of Expres
sion

PAGE

Leg 135, 146

Leg, Muscles of 268

Ligamenta Subflava 35

Ligamentum Nuchoe 36

Ligamentum Teres ... 116, 122

Linea Alba 198

Linea Aspera 133

Linea Semilunaris 199

Lineae Transversa; 203

Lips 311

Lips, Muscles of 326,330

Longissimus Dorsi Muscle ... 214
Lumbricales Muscles ... 237, 250
Luzzi, Mondino di 12

311
170

187
284

329
209
326

297

2q6

M

Malar Bone

Male Figure, Formulae of

Malleoli

Mandible

Manubrium of Sternum

Masseter Muscle

Masticating Muscles

Mastoid Process

Maxillary Bone, Inferior
Maxillary Bone, Superior
Menace, Expression of...

Mental Foramen

Mental Process

Mesaticephalic of Skull
Metacarpo-phalangeal Articu

lation

Metacarpus

Metatarsus

Michael Angelo

Middle Finger

Middle Finger as a Canon

Modern Art

Molar Teeth

Mongols, Facial Angle of
Monkeys, Facial Angle of

176

125

149

177

45
292

291
169
177
176
322
178

177
172

93
90

159
14
91

18s

5
179
184
184

Index.

345

Mouth

Mouth, Muscles of
Muscles in General
Muscles, Movement of...
Muscles, Nomenclature of
Mylo-hyoid Muscle

N

Nasal Bones

Nasal Eminences ...

Nasal Fossa

Naso-labial Fold ...
Naso-lachrymal Groo
Navicular Bone
Neck, Movements of
Neck, Muscles of ...
Neck, Region of ...
Negro, Facial Angle

Neural Arch

Neural Canal

Nipple of Breast ...
Nomenclature
Nose, Muscles of ...
Nostrils

ve

of

PAGE

... 312

... .325

... 189

... 189

... 191

288, 290

... 168

... 168

... 175

... 311

... 174

156, 158

... 282

2SI,

334
208
184

29

29

196

22

328

312

O

Oblique Muscles of the Ab-
domen

Obturator Foramen

Obturator Membrane

Obturator Muscle

Occipital Bone

Occipital Condyles

Occipital Muscle ..
Odontoid Process ..

CEsophagus

Olecranon

Olecranon Fossa ..
Olecranon Process
Omo-hyoid Muscle

PAGE

Opponens Muscles 248

Opposition, Movements of ... 92

Optic Foramen 175

Orbicular Muscle of Eyelids 318

Orbicular Muscle of Lips ... 330

Orbicularis Palpebrarum ... 318

Orbital Processes 176

Orbits 173

Os Calcis 152

Os Magnum 88

Ossa Innominata 105

Osteology 19

198
106
III
256
164
165
316

32

284

70

69

71
286

Pain. Expression of
Palmar Fascia
Palmaris Brevis
Palmaris Longus ...
Palpebral Muscle ...
Panniculus Carnosus
Parietal Bones

Patella

Patella, Ligament of
Patellar Surface ...
Pectineus Muscle ...
Pectoral Muscles ...

Pelvis

Pelvis, Muscles of
Perineum

Peroneal Muscles ...

Petrous Portion

Phalanges of Fingers

Phalanges of Toes...

Pharynx

Philtrum

Physiology

Pinna

Pisiform Bone

Plantar Ligaments

Plantaris Muscle ..

Platysma Muscles ...

335

248

249

235

318

313

166

134

... 142, 260

133

262

193

103

252

112

158, 160, 271
168

93

160

284

311

9

312

88

156

277

211

34^

Artistic Anatomy.

Platysma of Neck

Plica Semilunaris

Ponium Adatni

Popliteal Space

Posterior Triangle

Poupart's Ligament

Pouting, Expression of

Processes of Vertebrae

Pronation

Pronator Quadratus

Pronator Radii Teres, Im-
pression for

Pronator Teres

Proportion of Arm

Proportion of Clavicle

Proportion of Foot

Proportion of Hips

Proportion of Leg

Proportion of Lower Limb ...

Proportion of Pelvis

Proportion of Sternum

Proportion of Upper Limb ...

Proportion of Vertebral
Column

Psoas Muscle

Pterygoid Muscle

Pubis

Pyramidalis Abdominis Mus-
cle

Pyramidalis Muscle of Face

Pyriformis Muscle

Quadratus Femoris

Quadratus Mcnti

Quadriceps Extensor Muscle
Quadrumana

R

Radial Head

PAGE

334

311

284
142
210
III

331
30
82

237
78

97

46

163

124

162

161

114

46

96

38
263
292
105

204
322
256

256

333
259
148

68

Radial Muscles

Radio-carpal Articulation

Radio-carpal Joint

Radio-ulnar Articulation

Radius

Ramus of Lower Jaw

Rectus Abdominis

Rectus Femoris

Reflection, Expression of ...

Renaissance Art

Rhomboid Muscles

Ribs

Risorius Muscle of Santorini
Roman Art

PAGE
. 239

. 1'^

. 89

82

70, n
178
202
259
320

, . 4

212

46

334

4

Sacro-sciatic Ligaments

Sacrum

Sadness, Expression of

Sagittal Suture

Salvage and Malgaigne's

Formula

Sappey, Professor, on Canons
Sartorius Muscle ..
vScaphoid Bone

Scapula

Scapulo - humeral

tion

Scarpa's Triangle

Sciatic Notch

Scorn, Expression of ...

Semi-lunar Bone

Semi-lunar Fascia

Semi-lunar Ligaments ...
Semi-membranosus Muscle .
Semi-tendinosus Muscle
Serratus Magnus Muscle
Sexes, Formulae of

Shin Bone ...

Shoulder

Shoulder Blade

Shoulder Joint

105, III
... 103
••• 332
... 170

125
188

258

, 152, 156, 158

56

Articula-

60, 61

263

109

88
225

n\

267

... 266

215, 220

... 125

•• 135

••• 55

... 56

... 6i

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